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McCoy J, Nielsen S, Bruno R. Development and validation of a brief screening tool for over-the-counter codeine dependence. Res Social Adm Pharm 2024; 20:182-189. [PMID: 38071124 DOI: 10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low-dose codeine is sold without a prescription in countries like the UK, Ireland, and South Africa. Due to misuse concerns, exploring pharmacy screening tools to identify those at risk and needing additional support is vital. OBJECTIVES The study aims to develop and validate a brief screening tool that assesses the risk of codeine dependence with language appropriate for routine use in community pharmacies. METHOD Scale development and validation occurred over two studies. In Study 1, scale item generation was based on structured analyses of psychosocial and pharmacy variables from frequent over-the-counter codeine consumers (N = 795). CFA was used to assess the cohesiveness of the resultant four-item Codeine Dependence Scale (CDS). ROC analyses were used to assess the performance of the CDS against risk cases identified by the Severity of Dependence Scale; identifying an optimal cut-off value of ≥2 as representing individuals at risk of codeine dependence. In Study 2, this CDS threshold was assessed against positive DSM-5 Opioid Use Disorder (OUD) cases related to codeine use assessed using the AUDADIS-IV. RESULTS With a cut-off score of ≥2, the CDS has sensitivity and specificity of 76% and 48%, respectively, against a DSM-5 codeine-related OUD diagnosis using the AUDADIS-IV. For identification of any codeine-related OUD (as measured by the AUDADIS-IV) 15 months after baseline, the CDS achieved an overall correct classification rate of 52%; 72% for positive cases. CONCLUSIONS The CDS exhibits reasonable cross-sectional and longitudinal sensitivity but low specificity, partly due to its brevity. However, the inclusive nature of the CDS is not a negative for application as a screening tool in a pharmacy setting as individual CDS items represent critical conversation points with a pharmacist, regardless of the screening outcome. The non-confronting nature of CDS items make the scale a viable option for pharmacy-based SBI in countries where codeine remains OTC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui McCoy
- University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, TAS, 7005, Australia.
| | - Suzanne Nielsen
- Monash University, Wellington Rd, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia.
| | - Raimondo Bruno
- University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, TAS, 7005, Australia.
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2
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Lehnbom EC, Berbakov ME, Hoffins EL, Moon J, Welch L, Chui MA. Elevating Safe Use of Over-The-Counter Medications in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Pharmacy Involved Interventions and Recommendations for Improvement. Drugs Aging 2023:10.1007/s40266-023-01041-5. [PMID: 37340207 DOI: 10.1007/s40266-023-01041-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Over-the-counter (OTC) medications are products that have been made easily accessible to allow patients to treat common ailments without a prescription and the cost of a doctor's visit. These medications are generally considered safe; however, there is still a potential for these medications to lead to adverse health outcomes. Older adults (ages 50+) are especially susceptible to these adverse health outcomes, due to age-related physiological changes, a higher prevalence of comorbidities, and prescription medication use. Many OTC medications are sold in pharmacies, which provides pharmacists and technicians with the opportunity to help guide safe selection and use for these medications. Therefore, community pharmacies are the ideal setting for OTC medication safety interventions. This narrative review summarizes the findings of pharmacy-involved interventions that promote safe OTC medication use for older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elin C Lehnbom
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Department of Health and Caring Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, Sweden
| | - Maria E Berbakov
- Sonderegger Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Emily L Hoffins
- Sonderegger Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jukrin Moon
- Sonderegger Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lauren Welch
- William S. Middleton VA Geriatrics Research Education & Clinical Center, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Michelle A Chui
- Sonderegger Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI, USA.
- Social and Administrative Sciences Division, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI, USA.
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3
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Jung M, Cangadis‐Douglass H, Nielsen S, Lalic S, Dobbin M, Russell G, Prathivadi P, Wood P, Manias E, Lee CY, Arnold C, Kuleas M, Schumann JL, Ilomäki J, Bell JS. What are the research priorities for optimising the safe and effective use of opioids in Australian general practice? Drug Alcohol Rev 2023; 42:604-613. [PMID: 36065154 PMCID: PMC10946507 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Persistent high rates of prescription opioid use and harms remain a concern in Australia, Europe and North America. Research priority setting can inform the research agenda, strategic responses and evidence-based interventions. The objective of this study was to establish research priorities related to the safe and effective use of prescription opioids in general practice. METHODS Consumers, clinicians and policy makers were invited to participate in a structured consensus workshop in May 2021. A modified nominal group technique was used to explore research priorities for the safe and effective use of opioids in Australian general practice. Research priorities were identified, consolidated and prioritised using a structured process. RESULTS Seventeen consumer, medical, pharmacy, nursing, allied health and policy participants generated 26 consolidated priorities across three domains: (i) consumer-focused priorities; (ii) clinician and practice-focused priorities; and (iii) system and policy-focused priorities. The highest ranked research priorities in each of the domains were consumer characteristics that influence opioid prescribing and outcomes, opioid deprescribing strategies, and system-level barriers to prescribing alternatives to opioids, in the consumer, clinician and practice, and system and policy domains, respectively. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The priorities reflect opportunities for research priority setting within Australian general practice. The priorities provide a map for future qualitative and quantitative research that will inform safe and effective opioid prescribing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Jung
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Helena Cangadis‐Douglass
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Suzanne Nielsen
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Samanta Lalic
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Pharmacy DepartmentMonash HealthMelbourneAustralia
| | - Malcolm Dobbin
- Department of Forensic MedicineMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Grant Russell
- Department of General PracticeMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | | | - Pene Wood
- Department of Pharmacy and Biomedical ScienceLa Trobe UniversityBendigoAustralia
| | - Elizabeth Manias
- School of Nursing and Midwifery, Centre for Quality and Patient Safety Research, Institute for Health TransformationDeakin UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Nursing, School of Health SciencesThe University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
- Department of MedicineRoyal Melbourne HospitalMelbourneAustralia
| | - Cik Y. Lee
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Nursing, School of Health SciencesThe University of MelbourneMelbourneAustralia
| | - Carolyn Arnold
- Caulfield Pain Management and Research CentreAlfred HealthMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Central Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | | | - Jennifer L. Schumann
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Forensic MedicineMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Drug Intelligence UnitVictorian Institute of Forensic MedicineMelbourneAustralia
| | - Jenni Ilomäki
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive MedicineMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - J. Simon Bell
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical SchoolMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Centre for Medicine Use and Safety, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive MedicineMonash UniversityMelbourneAustralia
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4
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McCoy J, Nielsen S, Bruno R. A prospective cohort study evaluating the impact of upscheduling codeine in Australia among frequent users of codeine. Addiction 2022; 117:677-686. [PMID: 34490926 DOI: 10.1111/add.15683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIM To evaluate and document the impacts of re-scheduling codeine to a prescription-only medication in Australia in February 2018. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. Participants completed an on-line survey with a range of outcome measures at four time-points, once before codeine was re-scheduled (November 2017) and three times after the event: 1 month after (February 2018), 4 months after (June 2018) and 12 months after (February 2019). SETTING Australia. PARTICIPANTS Participants were 260 Australians aged 18 years and above who reported regular over-the-counter (OTC) codeine use and, at the time of the study, were not engaged in treatment for codeine dependence. MEASUREMENTS Survey measures included estimates of daily average codeine use (mg) and overall daily average opioid use [calculated using an oral morphine equivalent daily dose (OMEDD, mg)], opioid use disorder with regard to codeine use (using a modified Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-IV), pain and pain self-efficacy, anxiety and depression and health service use. FINDINGS A reduction in total daily codeine use (mg) from 64.3 mg [95% confidence interval (CI) = 46.7-81.9] in November 2017 (baseline) to 27.6 mg (95% CI = 19.2-36.0) in February 2019 (final time-point) was observed. A decline in the proportion of participants who met criteria for an opioid use disorder was also evident, with 51.2% (n = 133) at baseline relative to 33.3% (n = 58) at the 12-month follow-up. This study had an overall participant retention rate of 67% at the final time-point. CONCLUSION Re-scheduling codeine in Australia has been accompanied by significant reductions in codeine use and prevalence rates of opioid use disorder in a cohort of individuals who regularly use the medication, without apparent adverse impacts on pain or measures of anxiety and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suzanne Nielsen
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Frankston, Australia, 3199, Australia
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5
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Dobbin M, Nielsen S, Schumann JL. Commentary on McCoy et al.: More pieces of the mosaic describing outcomes of the Australian up-scheduling of over-the-counter codeine to prescription only. Addiction 2022; 117:687-689. [PMID: 34622497 DOI: 10.1111/add.15693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm Dobbin
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Suzanne Nielsen
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Eastern Health Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Schumann
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Bishop M, Schumann JL, Gerostamoulos D, Wong A. The impact of codeine upscheduling on overdoses, Emergency Department presentations and mortality in Victoria, Australia. Drug Alcohol Depend 2021; 226:108837. [PMID: 34216868 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Prior to February 2018, codeine was available over-the-counter (OTC) in Australia as a pharmacist-only medicine (Schedule 3) in low-strength formulations when in combination with simple analgesics. In February 2018, The Advisory Committee on Medicines Scheduling (ACMS) upscheduled codeine-containing medicines (CCM) to Schedule 4 (prescription-only medicine). This study aimed to determine the impact of upscheduling on prescriptions, overdoses and deaths. METHODS This study used interrupted time series analysis, a quasi-experimental design, to retrospectively evaluate the impact of upscheduling on overdose poisoning calls to the Victorian Poisons Information Centre (VPIC), Emergency Department (ED) presentations to Austin Health, and deaths reported to the Victorian Coroner from 1 January 2013-31 December 2019. RESULTS There was a significant reduction in the trend of high-strength codeine poisoning calls by 0.36 (P = 0.03, 95 % CI = [-0.69, -0.04]). Low-strength codeine poisoning calls to the VPIC reduced by 13.31 (P <0.001, 95 % CI = [-16.80, 9.82]]) calls in February 2018, followed by continued reduction of 0.12 calls per month. High-strength codeine overdose ED presentations reduced in the first quarter of 2018 by 3.72 presentations (P = 0.004, 95 % CI = [-6.13, -1.31]). Low-strength codeine overdose ED presentations after the first quarter of 2018 by 0.33 (P = 0.03, 95 % CI = [-0.63, -0.03]) presentations per month. Codeine-related deaths reduced by 7.19 (P < 0.001, 95 % CI = [-9.44, -4.94]) deaths in February 2018. CONCLUSIONS Codeine upscheduling to prescription-only medicine has reduced codeine-related poisoning calls, overdoses and unnatural death in Victoria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milly Bishop
- The Royal Melbourne Hospital, 300 Grattan Street, Parkville, 3050, Australia.
| | - Jennifer L Schumann
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia; Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia
| | - Dimitri Gerostamoulos
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia; Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, VIC, 3006, Australia
| | - Anselm Wong
- Victorian Poisons Information Centre and Emergency Department, Austin Health, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Victoria, Australia; Centre for Integrated Critical Care, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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7
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Overview of this issue: "Pain management in an opioid crisis". Int J Clin Pharm 2021; 43:309-312. [PMID: 33907962 DOI: 10.1007/s11096-021-01245-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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8
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Mishriky J, Stupans I, Chan V. The role of the pharmacist in low back pain management: a narrative review of practice guidelines on paracetamol vs non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Pharm Pract (Granada) 2020; 18:2075. [PMID: 32802218 PMCID: PMC7416311 DOI: 10.18549/pharmpract.2020.3.2075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Low back pain (LBP) is a common and costly condition and a leading cause of
disabilities across the globe. In Australia and other countries, there has been
changes in LBP management guidelines and evidence in recent years, including the
use of pharmacotherapy. Inadequately treated LBP is a burden with significant
health and economic impacts. Although there is some variability, non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have largely replaced paracetamol as the
first-choice analgesic for non-specific LBP in many international clinical
guidelines, including the current Australian Therapeutic Guidelines. More recent
clinical evidence also supports that targeting LBP with the use of NSAIDs can
provide superior and more effective relief of LBP symptoms compared with
paracetamol. Community pharmacists are one of the most accessible and frequently
visited health professionals that offer vital primary healthcare services aimed
to provide enhanced clinical outcomes for patients. The position of a community
pharmacist is pivotal in LBP assessment and management, from both a
pharmacological and non-pharmacological standpoint, including the use of
clinical guidelines, yet their roles are often not fully utilized in LBP
therapy. Studies investigating the community pharmacist’s views,
practices, knowledge, and roles, specifically in LBP management in Australia are
variable and limited. This narrative review will briefly cover the impacts of
LBP, and to provide a summary on recent evidence, updates and a comparison of
the Australian and international low back pain management guidelines on
paracetamol vs NSAIDs in LBP, as well as pharmacists’ roles and
interventions in a primary healthcare setting in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Mishriky
- BPharm(Hons). Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University. Bundoora, VIC (Australia).
| | - Ieva Stupans
- BPharm, PhD. Professor and Discipline Head. Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University. Bundoora, VIC (Australia).
| | - Vincent Chan
- BPharm, MPH, PhD. Senior Lecturer. Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University. Bundoora, VIC (Australia).
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Mckenzie M, Johnson JL, Anderson K, Summers R, Wood P. Exploring Australian pharmacists' perceptions and attitudes toward codeine up-scheduling from over-the-counter to prescription only. Pharm Pract (Granada) 2020; 18:1904. [PMID: 32566049 PMCID: PMC7290177 DOI: 10.18549/pharmpract.2020.2.1904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Explore the perceptions, attitudes and experiences of pharmacists relating to the up-scheduling of low dose codeine containing analgesics and the impact on pharmacy practice. Methods: A mixed design method was used consisting of an anonymous online questionnaire survey to quantitatively capture broad pre-scheduling change perceptions paired with a series of in-depth post-scheduling semi-structured interviews to provide a qualitative picture of the impact of codeine up-scheduling on pharmacy practice in Australia. Results: A total of 191 pharmacists completed the quantitative survey and 10 participated in the in-depth interview. The majority of respondents supported the decision to up-schedule over-the-counter combination products containing codeine to some degree. Three main themes emerged from the data: pharmacists’ perceptions of the codeine up-scheduling decision, preparing for the up-schedule and impact of the up-schedule on pharmacy practice. Pharmacists were concerned about the impact of up-scheduling on the pharmacy business, patient access to pain relief and the diminishment of their professional role. Conclusions: There were diverse perceptions, preparedness and impact on practice regarding the up-scheduling of low dose codeine products. Further research should be conducted to gauge if and how these perceptions have changed over time and to identify whether pain is being managed more effectively post codeine up-scheduling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mckenzie
- Department of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, College of Science, Health & Engineering, La Trobe University. Bendigo, VIC (Australia).
| | - Jacinta L Johnson
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia. Adelaide, SA (Australia).
| | - Karen Anderson
- Rural Department of Community Health, La Trobe Rural Health School. Bendigo, VIC (Australia).
| | - Richard Summers
- Department of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, College of Science, Health & Engineering, La Trobe University. Bendigo, Vic (Australia).
| | - Pene Wood
- Department of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, College of Science, Health & Engineering, La Trobe University. Bendigo, Vic (Australia).
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10
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Mishriky J, Stupans I, Chan V. The views of Australian adults experiencing pain on the upscheduling of codeine-containing analgesics to 'prescription only'. Int J Clin Pharm 2020; 43:386-393. [PMID: 32301065 DOI: 10.1007/s11096-020-01026-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background Codeine is one of the most commonly used opioids worldwide and is available in different formulations, often combined with other simple analgesics. There is a growing concern of the potential harms associated with codeine misuse in the Australian community, and for this reason codeine containing analgesics have been upscheduled in Australia to 'prescription only medicines' from February 2018. There is currently limited knowledge on the views of Australian adults experiencing pain symptoms on this codeine restriction, and whether this change has impacted their ability to adequately manage their pain. Objective To investigate the views of adults experiencing pain on the 2018 codeine upscheduling in Australia. Setting Adults experiencing pain symptoms, predominantly recruited from Victoria, Australia. Method A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted using a pre-tested customised anonymous self-administered questionnaire between January and March 2019. To capture a broad range of demographics, participants were recruited from ten Victorian community pharmacies across metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. Main outcome measure Opinions of Australian adults experiencing pain to targeted questions regarding the 2018 codeine upscheduling, including perceived advantages and disadvantages. Results A total of 120 participants completed the questionnaire. Sixty-two (52%) participants agreed/strongly agreed that codeine was helpful in alleviating pain symptoms before a prescription was required; while 43% of participants felt the codeine restriction has made it more difficult to manage their pain, with 33% unsure. Participants who were in favour of the codeine upscheduling believed that they are now more encouraged to consult healthcare professionals and make better use of the pain management services made available to them in the Australian community; however some now question the value of pharmacists in this context, given that there is now a reduced array of analgesic medicines available at pharmacies without a prescription. Conclusion This study showed there are mixed views, with some participants being unsure or not in favour of the codeine upscheduling, particularly based on qualitative responses. There is also opportunity in this space for healthcare providers to extend beyond standard practice and offer alternative pain management advice and support now that codeine is no longer available in Australian pharmacies without a prescription.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Mishriky
- Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Ieva Stupans
- Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia
| | - Vincent Chan
- Pharmacy, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, 3083, Australia.
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Schaffer AL, Cairns R, Brown JA, Gisev N, Buckley NA, Pearson S. Changes in sales of analgesics to pharmacies after codeine was rescheduled as a prescription only medicine. Med J Aust 2020; 212:321-327. [DOI: 10.5694/mja2.50552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L Schaffer
- Centre for Big Data Research in HealthUniversity of New South Wales Sydney NSW
| | - Rose Cairns
- University of Sydney Sydney NSW
- NSW Poisons Information CentreChildren's Hospital at Westmead Sydney NSW
| | - Jared A Brown
- Centre for Big Data Research in HealthUniversity of New South Wales Sydney NSW
- NSW Poisons Information CentreChildren's Hospital at Westmead Sydney NSW
| | - Natasa Gisev
- National Drug and Alcohol Research CentreUniversity of New South Wales Sydney NSW
| | | | - Sallie‐Anne Pearson
- Centre for Big Data Research in HealthUniversity of New South Wales Sydney NSW
- Menzies Centre for Health PolicyUniversity of Sydney Sydney NSW
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12
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McCoy J, Nielsen S, Bruno R. Impact of Removing Nonprescription Codeine in Australia: Protocol for a Prospective Cohort Study. JMIR Res Protoc 2020; 9:e15540. [PMID: 32167481 PMCID: PMC7101496 DOI: 10.2196/15540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background On February 1, 2018, Australia rescheduled codeine to a prescription-only medication. Many concerns were associated with this change, including increased financial costs, reduced service accessibility, the potential for poorer pain management, and a decline in physical and mental health if codeine could not be accessed. In the research literature, there is limited knowledge about the long-term consequences of rescheduling pharmaceutical opioids and, as Australia has followed many countries in implementing a restriction on codeine, further study of these consequences is critical. Objective The goal of this study was to examine the impact of rescheduling codeine from an over-the-counter (OTC) product to a prescription-only medicine on the primary measures of codeine use and dependence in a prospective cohort of people who are frequent consumers of OTC codeine. Secondary measures included pain and self-efficacy, health service use, and mental health. Methods The Codeine Cohort study aimed to recruit 300 participants in Australia who regularly (at least a few times per week for the past 6 months) used OTC codeine. Using an online survey, participants were followed up at three time points (February 2018, June 2018, and February 2019) after codeine was rescheduled. Results All four waves of data collection are complete, with the final round of data collection finalized in August 2019. Data analyses are yet to be completed. Information on demographics, codeine use and dependence, physical and mental health, medication use, and health service use will be analyzed using mixed models. Conclusions Results of this study will provide insight into the effectiveness of regulatory restriction in curtailing nonmedical use of and harms associated with codeine. Additionally, results will explore positive and negative outcomes of codeine rescheduling for individual patients, which informs health professionals who support patients who use codeine and further community education. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/15540
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Cairns R, Schaffer AL, Brown JA, Pearson SA, Buckley NA. Codeine use and harms in Australia: evaluating the effects of re-scheduling. Addiction 2020; 115:451-459. [PMID: 31577369 DOI: 10.1111/add.14798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Globally, codeine is the most-used opioid. In December 2016, Australia announced that low-strength codeine (≤ 15 mg) would be re-scheduled and no longer available for purchase over-the-counter; this was implemented in February 2018. We aimed to evaluate the effect of this scheduling change on codeine misuse and use and misuse of other opioids. DESIGN AND SETTING Interrupted time-series analysis of monthly opioid exposure calls to New South Wales Poisons Information Centre (NSWPIC, captures 50% of Australia's poisoning calls), January 2015- January 2019 and monthly national codeine sales, March 2015-March 2019. We incorporated a washout period (January 2017 - January 2018) between the announcement and implementation, when prescriber/consumer behaviour may have been influenced. PARTICIPANTS Intentional opioid overdoses resulting in a call to NSWPIC. MEASUREMENTS We used linear segmented regression to identify abrupt changes in level and slope of fitted lines. Codeine poisonings and sales were stratified into high strength (> 15 mg per dose unit) and low strength (≤ 15 mg). Only low-strength formulations were re-scheduled. FINDINGS We observed an abrupt -50.8 percentage [95% confidence interval (CI) = -79.0 to -22.6%] level change in monthly codeine-related poisonings and no change in slope in the 12 months after February 2018. There was no increase in calls to the NSWPIC for high-strength products, level change: -37.2% (95% CI = -82.3 to 8%) or non-codeine opioids, level change: -4.4% (95% CI = -33.3 to 24.4%). Overall, the re-scheduling resulted in a level change in opioid calls of -35.8% calls/month (95% CI = -51.2 to -20.4%). Low-strength codeine sales decreased by 87.3% (95% CI = -88.5 to -85.9%), with no increase in high-strength codeine sales in the 14 months following re-scheduling, -4.0% (95% CI = -19.6 to 14.6%). CONCLUSIONS Codeine re-scheduling in Australia appears to have reduced codeine misuse and sales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Cairns
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrea L Schaffer
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jared A Brown
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia.,Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Sallie-Anne Pearson
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Buckley
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Nielsen S. Commentary on Cairns et al. (2020): Codeine rescheduling-where to from here? Addiction 2020; 115:460-461. [PMID: 31879986 DOI: 10.1111/add.14881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Nielsen
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Monash University, Australia
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15
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Collins JC, Hillman JM, Schneider CR, Moles RJ. Supply of codeine combination analgesics from Australian pharmacies in the context of voluntary real-time recording and regulatory change: A simulated patient study. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2019; 74:216-222. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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16
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Changes in Australian prescription opioid use following codeine rescheduling: A retrospective study using pharmaceutical benefits data. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2019; 74:170-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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17
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'For pain, no shame' and 'My secret solace': Accounts of over-the-counter codeine dependence using Q methodology. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2019; 73:121-128. [PMID: 31654934 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dependence on over-the-counter (OTC) codeine is recognised internationally as a rising public health issue. The effectiveness of health intervention strategies may be influenced by the beliefs held by those who are dependent. Applying Q methodology, this study aimed to identify shared accounts of OTC codeine dependence. METHODS Twenty-six participants from Tasmania, Australia, met eligibility criteria for the study as long-term OTC codeine users with a Severity of Dependence Score of five or higher. Forty-six opinion statements about OTC codeine dependence were sourced from the literature and online discussion forums. These were rank-ordered by participants from least to most agree and explanatory comments for the most strongly positioned statements were provided. By-person factor analysis was used to group participants who had sorted the statements similarly. RESULTS Two distinct accounts of OTC codeine dependence were identified. Participants representing Factor One, 'For pain, no shame', were not ashamed of their OTC codeine use, believed access should not be restricted and regarded it as necessary for the relief of physical pain. In contrast, Factor Two, 'My secret solace', was characterized by feelings of guilt and shame. Participants in this group intentionally used codeine for its effects on mood; to help them relax and to relieve stress, rather than solely for pain relief. They did not consider regular use of codeine to be socially acceptable and hid their use from others. CONCLUSION The way in which OTC codeine use is viewed by those who are dependent is not uniform. Two distinct accounts were identified in this sample. Participants from each group varied in their beliefs about access, causality, reasons for use and feelings of legitimacy and shame. An understanding of these differences can be used to better target interventions and guide policy for the prevention and management of OTC codeine dependence.
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18
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Padayachee N, Rothberg AD, Truter I, Butkow N. Utilization of over-the-counter analgesics in two private medical insurance schemes in South Africa. DRUG HEALTHCARE AND PATIENT SAFETY 2019; 11:37-45. [PMID: 31410069 PMCID: PMC6645681 DOI: 10.2147/dhps.s194347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Introduction In South Africa there is an easy access to over-the-counter (OTC) medicines and expenditure is high. Certain OTC products are available to the public in general stores, while others may only be available at pharmacies. It is also common for OTC medicines to be prescribed by a doctor for treatment of minor illnesses. Individuals with medical insurance usually have cover for these products, but typically only to a limited extent. Aim To investigate the utilization patterns in two medical insurance schemes of OTC analgesic products in the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) category N02BE51 which includes medicines containing paracetamol and varying combinations of codeine, caffeine and antihistamines. Methodology Data were obtained for two benefit plans, one with generous, high benefits (HI), the other with lower benefits (LO). Data covered utilization of OTC medicines in the N02BE51 group, indicating whether the medicines were purchased at a pharmacy or dispensed by a doctor. Doctors were further categorised as contracted/network or non-network providers. Product costs and volumes were analysed according to access directly by the beneficiary, recommendation by a pharmacist, or prescription from a doctor. Results Compared to doctors, pharmacists issued more-expensive products. Average costs were higher in the HI plan compared to the LO plan. Pharmacists showed a preference for dispensing larger and more expensive pack sizes. Doctors showed better cost containment: the average cost of products in HI was twice that of LO. Doctors dispensing directly to patients issued smaller pack sizes and lower-priced products. Contracted network doctors did not appear to impact on costs. Conclusion Among the privately-insured individuals studied, the avaiIability, cost and formulation of N02BE51 OTC products appeared to be poorly regulated, whether by the consumer, pharmacist, medical insurance scheme or legislation. Doctors demonstrate better cost containment by prescribing less costly, smaller pack-size alternatives compared to pharmacists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelaveni Padayachee
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Alan D Rothberg
- School of Therapeutic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Ilse Truter
- Department of Pharmacy, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
| | - Neil Butkow
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa
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19
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Pharmacists' views on the upscheduling of codeine-containing analgesics to 'prescription only' medicines in Australia. Int J Clin Pharm 2019; 41:538-545. [PMID: 30879215 DOI: 10.1007/s11096-019-00804-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Background Codeine is the most commonly used opioid worldwide, and is available over-the-counter (OTC) in many countries. There is continual debate regarding the risk:benefit profile for OTC codeine. In Australia, codeine containing analgesics became 'prescription only medicine' from February 2018. However, there is currently limited knowledge on the views of community pharmacists on this upscheduling and the perceived impacts on clinical practice. Objective To investigate the views of community pharmacists on the recent codeine upscheduling in Australia. Setting Community pharmacists in Australia, predominately recruited from Victoria. Method A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted using a pre-tested customised anonymous self-administered online questionnaire between March and May 2018. To capture a broad range of demographics, pharmacists were recruited via local industry contacts and the Pharmaceutical Society newsletter, with further recruitment through snowball sampling. Main outcome measure Pharmacists' opinions to targeted questions regarding the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the recent 2018 codeine rescheduling from both their perspectives and their perceived impact on patients. Results A total of 113 pharmacists completed the survey. Approximately 43% of pharmacists agreed/strongly agreed that they believed upscheduling will positively impact their ability to manage pain; while 30% were neutral. Approximately 54% of pharmacists agreed/strongly agreed that they believed upscheduling will positively benefit their patients; while 25% were neutral. Perceived advantages for codeine upscheduling included: increased pharmacist/patient engagement, and less codeine use leading to better overall risk:benefit outcome; while disadvantages included: fewer analgesic options, and increased burden for patients, General Practitioners, and the health system. Conclusion This study showed that the current views on the recent codeine upscheduling are quite mixed, with both advantages and disadvantages perceived. Improving education and up-skilling in this space is essential.
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Jouanjus E, Falcou A, Deheul S, Roussin A, Lapeyre-Mestre M. Detecting the diverted use of psychoactive drugs by adolescents and young adults: A pilot study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2018; 27:1286-1292. [DOI: 10.1002/pds.4624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Jouanjus
- Equipe de Pharmacoépidémiologie; UMR 1027 Inserm-Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
- Centre d'Addictovigilance, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique; CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
- Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques; Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - Alice Falcou
- Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques; Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - Sylvie Deheul
- Centre d'Addictovigilance, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale; CHRU Lille; Lille France
| | - Anne Roussin
- Equipe de Pharmacoépidémiologie; UMR 1027 Inserm-Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
- Centre d'Addictovigilance, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique; CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
- Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques; Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
| | - Maryse Lapeyre-Mestre
- Equipe de Pharmacoépidémiologie; UMR 1027 Inserm-Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III; Toulouse France
- Centre d'Addictovigilance, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique; CHU Toulouse; Toulouse France
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren M Roberts
- Alcohol and Drug Services, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney
| | - Suzanne Nielsen
- Drug and Alcohol Service, South Eastern Sydney, Local Health District, Sydney
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