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Mecklinger A, Kamp SM. Observing memory encoding while it unfolds: Functional interpretation and current debates regarding ERP subsequent memory effects. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105347. [PMID: 37543177 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Our ability to remember the past depends on neural processes set in train in the moment an event is experienced. These processes can be studied by segregating brain activity according to whether an event is later remembered or forgotten. The present review integrates a large number of studies examining this differential brain activity, labeled subsequent memory effect (SME), with the ERP technique, into a functional organization and discusses routes for further research. Based on the reviewed literature, we suggest that memory encoding is implemented by multiple processes, typically reflected in three functionally different subcomponents of the ERP SME elicited by study stimuli, which presumably interact with preparatory SME activity preceding the to be encoded event. We argue that ERPs are a valuable method in the SME paradigm because they have a sufficiently high temporal resolution to disclose the subcomponents of encoding-related brain activity. Implications of the proposed functional organization for future studies using the SME procedure in basic and applied settings will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Mecklinger
- Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Saarland University, Campus A 2-4, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
| | - Siri-Maria Kamp
- Neurocognitive Psychology Unit, Universität Trier, Johanniterufer 15, 54290 Trier, Germany
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2
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Rollins L, Riggins T. Adapting event-related potential research paradigms for children: Considerations from research on the development of recognition memory. Dev Psychobiol 2021; 63:e22159. [PMID: 34333779 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Most developmental event-related potential (ERP) research uses experimental paradigms modified from research with adults. One major challenge is identifying how to adapt these paradigms effectively for use with younger individuals. This paper provides guidance for developmental adaptations by considering research on the development of recognition memory. We provide a brief overview of recognition memory tasks and ERP components associated with recognition memory in children and adults. Then, we provide some general recommendations, discuss common differences between ERP studies of recognition memory in adults and children (e.g., the type of stimuli presented, response modalities), and provide suggestions for assessing the effect of task modifications on ERP components of interest. Specifically, we recommend (a) testing both children and adults on the modified paradigm to allow for a continuity of findings across development, (b) comparing children of different ages on the modified paradigm based on expectations regarding when developmental change occurs for the cognitive process of interest, and (c) empirically assessing the effect of methodological differences between paradigms. To illustrate the latter, we analyzed data from our lab comparing memory-related ERP components when children experienced a 1-day, 2-day, or 1-week delay between encoding and retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Rollins
- Department of Psychology, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, Virginia, USA
| | - Tracy Riggins
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
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Rajan V, Cuevas K, Bell MA. Memory binding and theta EEG during middle childhood. Dev Psychobiol 2021; 63:e22124. [PMID: 33959957 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The ability to bind together the contextual details associated with an event undergoes dramatic improvement during childhood. However, few studies have examined the neural correlates of memory binding encoding and retrieval during middle childhood. We examined age-related encoding and retrieval differences using continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) measures in a sample of 6- and 8-year-olds. For the memory binding task, children were tested on memory for individual items (i.e., objects and backgrounds only) and combined object-backgrounds pairings (combination condition). Memory for individual item information was comparable across both age groups. However, younger children experienced greater difficulty (i.e., higher false alarm rate) in the combination condition. Theta (4-7 Hz) neuronal oscillations were analyzed to compare memory encoding and retrieval processes. Widespread retrieval-related increases in theta band EEG power (compared with baseline and encoding-related activation) were evident in both 6- and 8-year-olds. Regression analyses revealed that parietal theta EEG power during retrieval accounted for variability in memory binding performance. These findings suggest that theta rhythms are intricately linked to memory binding processes during middle childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinaya Rajan
- Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kimberly Cuevas
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Waterbury, Connecticut, USA
| | - Martha Ann Bell
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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Bettencourt KM, Everett LH, Chen Y, Pathman T. Examining the development of memory for temporal context and its underlying neural processes using event-related potentials. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2021; 48:100932. [PMID: 33588211 PMCID: PMC7890374 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory for temporal context, vital for episodic memory, shows prolonged development. Cognitive processes and neural mechanisms driving age-related improvements unclear. Event-related potentials (ERP) used with 7−9-year-olds, 10−12-year-olds, and adults. We found age-related improvements, ERP effects, and brain-behavior relations. Implications for temporal memory and episodic memory development discussed.
Time is a critical feature of episodic memory—memory for events from a specific time and place (Tulving, 1972). Previous research indicates that temporal memory (memory for ‘when’) is slower to develop than memory for other details (e.g., ‘what’ and ‘where’), with improvements observed across middle and late childhood. The factors that drive these changes are not yet clear. We used an event-related potential (ERP) recognition memory paradigm to investigate the underlying processes of memory for temporal context in middle to late childhood (7−9-year-olds; 10−12-year-olds) and young adulthood. Behaviorally, we observed age-related improvements in the ability to place events in temporal context. ERP analyses showed old/new effects for children and adults. We also found brain-behavior relations for 1) episodic memory (ERP mean amplitude difference between source hits and correctly identified new trials was correlated to behavioral accuracy), and 2) temporal memory (ERP mean amplitude difference between source hits and source error trials was correlated to accuracy of temporal memory judgments). This work furthers our understanding of the cognitive processes and neural signatures supporting temporal memory development in middle to late childhood, and has implications for episodic memory development more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yixin Chen
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA
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Canada KL, Geng F, Riggins T. Age- and performance-related differences in source memory retrieval during early childhood: Insights from event-related potentials. Dev Psychobiol 2020; 62:723-736. [PMID: 31876294 PMCID: PMC7505688 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Across early childhood, children's ability to remember individual items and the details that accompany these items (i.e., episodic memory) improves greatly. Given that these behavioral improvements coincide with increases in age, effects of age and performance are often confounded. This study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate age- and performance-related differences in the neural processes underlying the development of memory for details during early childhood. Using a source memory paradigm, ERP components related to episodic memory, the negative component (Nc), and late slow wave (LSW) were examined in 4- to 8-year-old children. Analyses focused on trials for which children correctly remembered the source related to an item versus trials where the item was remembered but the source was forgotten. Results revealed LSW, but not Nc, differed as a function of age and performance. Specifically, LSW effects were similar across source correct and source incorrect trials in all high-performing children and in low-performing older children; however, LSW effects differed across conditions in low-performing younger children. Results show developmental differences in retrieval processes across early childhood and highlight the importance of considering age and performance when examining electrophysiological correlates of episodic memory during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey L. Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742
| | - Fengji Geng
- Department of Curriculum and Learning Sciences, Zhejiang University, Xixi Campus, Hangzhou, 310007
| | - Tracy Riggins
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742
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Geng F, Canada K, Riggins T. Age- and performance-related differences in encoding during early childhood: insights from event-related potentials. Memory 2017; 26:451-461. [PMID: 28830307 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1366526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have found that children show rapid and significant improvements in their ability to remember individual items and the contextual details that surround these items (i.e., episodic memory) during early childhood. Encoding processes have been suggested to contribute to the development of episodic memory; however, few studies have investigated encoding processes. The goal of the current study was to examine age- and performance-related effects on encoding in children between 4 and 8 years of age using event-related potentials (ERPs). Results revealed effects of both age and performance on encoding, as indexed by the ERPs response. However, the nature of these effects differed between subsequent recognition and subsequent recollection, as well as for the two ERP components (i.e., Nc and LSW) examined. These findings are important as they contribute empirical evidence that encoding processes show developmental change across early childhood. In addition, these findings highlight the importance of controlling for performance differences in future studies examining developmental changes in episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengji Geng
- a Department of Psychology , University of Maryland , College Park , MD , USA
| | - Kelsey Canada
- a Department of Psychology , University of Maryland , College Park , MD , USA
| | - Tracy Riggins
- a Department of Psychology , University of Maryland , College Park , MD , USA
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Rollins L, Riggins T. Age-related differences in subjective recollection: ERP studies of encoding and retrieval. Dev Sci 2017; 21:e12583. [PMID: 28677331 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The ability to mentally re-experience past events improves significantly from childhood to young adulthood; however, the mechanisms underlying this ability remain poorly understood, partially because different tasks are used across the lifespan. This study was designed to address this gap by assessing the development of event-related potential (ERP) correlates associated with subjective indices of recollection. Children, adolescents, and adults performed Tulving's () remember/know paradigm while ERPs were recorded during memory encoding (Experiment 1) and retrieval (Experiment 2). Behaviorally, children recognized fewer items than adolescents and adults. All age groups reliably made subjective judgments of recollection, although the ability to make these judgments improved with age. At encoding, the ERP effect associated with recollection was present and comparable across age groups. In contrast, the ERP effect associated with recollection at retrieval differed as a function of age group; specifically, this effect was absent in children, topographically widespread in adolescents, and, consistent with previous literature, maximal over left centro-parietal leads in adults. These findings suggest that encoding processes associated with the subsequent subjective experience of recollection may be similar among children, adolescents, and adults and that age-related improvement in recollection may be primarily attributable to the development of processes that follow the initial encoding of stimuli (i.e., consolidation, storage, retrieval).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Rollins
- Department of Psychology, Christopher Newport University, Newport News, VA, USA
| | - Tracy Riggins
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
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Task characteristics are critical for the use of familiarity: An ERP study on episodic memory development in middle childhood. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2016.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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9
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Remembering the pain of childhood: applying a developmental perspective to the study of pain memories. Pain 2015; 156:31-34. [PMID: 25599297 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.0000000000000001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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10
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Riggins T, Rollins L. Developmental differences in memory during early childhood: insights from event-related potentials. Child Dev 2015; 86:889-902. [PMID: 25677124 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Age-related differences in behavioral and electrophysiological indices of memory were examined in 3- to 6-year-old children (N = 76). Behaviorally, no differences were observed in children's ability to identify old items; however, 3-year-old children were less accurate in correctly rejecting new items, and 3- and 4-year-old children recalled fewer contextual details compared to 5- and 6-year-old children. Age-related differences in electrophysiological measures (800-1,000 ms after stimulus onset) were observed both to items recalled with contextual details, which increased between 3 and 4 years, and items recalled without contextual details, which were greatest in 5-year-old children, even after adjusting for global age-related differences. These findings, interpreted within a dual-process framework, may suggest changes in both recollection and familiarity processes during early childhood.
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