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Limaye A, Cho K, Hall B, Khillan JS, Kulkarni AB. Genotyping Protocols for Genetically Engineered Mice. Curr Protoc 2023; 3:e929. [PMID: 37984376 PMCID: PMC10754054 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Historically, the laboratory mouse has been the mammalian species of choice for studying gene function and for modeling diseases in humans. This was mainly due to their availability from mouse fanciers. In addition, their short generation time, small size, and minimal food consumption compared to that of larger mammals were definite advantages. This led to the establishment of large hubs for the development of genetically modified mouse models, such as the Jackson Laboratory. Initial research into inbred mouse strains in the early 1900s revolved around coat color genetics and cancer studies, but gene targeting in embryonic stem cells and the introduction of transgenes through pronuclear injection of a mouse zygote, along with current clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) RNA gene editing, have allowed easy manipulation of the mouse genome. Originally, to distribute a mouse model to other facilities, standard methods had to be developed to ensure that each modified mouse trait could be consistently identified no matter which laboratory requested it. The task of establishing uniform protocols became easier with the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This chapter will provide guidelines for identifying genetically modified mouse models, mainly using endpoint PCR. In addition, we will discuss strategies to identify genetically modified mouse models that have been established using newer gene-editing technology such as CRISPR. Published 2023. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA. Basic Protocol 1: Digestion with proteinase K followed by purification of genomic DNA using phenol/chloroform Alternate Protocol: Digestion with proteinase K followed by crude isopropanol extraction of genomic DNA for tail biopsy and ear punch samples Basic Protocol 2: Purification of genomic DNA using a semi-automated system Basic Protocol 3: Purification of genomic DNA from semen, blood, or buccal swabs Basic Protocol 4: Purification of genomic DNA from mouse blastocysts to assess CRISPR gene editing Basic Protocol 5: Routine endpoint-PCR-based genotyping using DNA polymerase and thermal cycler Basic Protocol 6: T7E1/Surveyor assays to detect insertion or deletions following CRISPR editing Basic Protocol 7: Detecting off-target mutations following CRISPR editing Basic Protocol 8: Detecting genomic sequence deletion after CRISPR editing using a pair of guide RNAs Basic Protocol 9: Detecting gene knock-in events following CRISPR editing Basic Protocol 10: Screening of conditional knockout floxed mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Advait Limaye
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research
| | - Kyoungin Cho
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Bradford Hall
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research
| | - Jaspal S. Khillan
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Ohara H, Nabika T. Genetic Modifications to Alter Blood Pressure Level. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081855. [PMID: 36009402 PMCID: PMC9405136 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic manipulation is one of the indispensable techniques to examine gene functions both in vitro and in vivo. In particular, cardiovascular phenotypes such as blood pressure cannot be evaluated in vitro system, necessitating the creation of transgenic or gene-targeted knock-out and knock-in experimental animals to understand the pathophysiological roles of specific genes on the disease conditions. Although genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in various human populations have identified multiple genetic variations associated with increased risk for hypertension and/or its complications, the causal links remain unresolved. Genome-editing technologies can be applied to many different types of cells and organisms for creation of knock-out/knock-in models. In the post-GWAS era, it may be more worthwhile to validate pathophysiological implications of the risk variants and/or candidate genes by creating genome-edited organisms.
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Kabwe JC, Sawada H, Mitani Y, Oshita H, Tsuboya N, Zhang E, Maruyama J, Miyasaka Y, Ko H, Oya K, Ito H, Yodoya N, Otsuki S, Ohashi H, Okamoto R, Dohi K, Nishimura Y, Mashimo T, Hirayama M, Maruyama K. CRISPR-mediated Bmpr2 point mutation exacerbates late pulmonary vasculopathy and reduces survival in rats with experimental pulmonary hypertension. Respir Res 2022; 23:87. [PMID: 35395852 PMCID: PMC8994407 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-022-02005-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) carrying bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 (Bmpr2) mutations present earlier with severe hemodynamic compromise and have poorer survival outcomes than those without mutation. The mechanism underlying the worsening clinical phenotype of PAH with Bmpr2 mutations has been largely unaddressed in rat models of pulmonary hypertension (PH) because of the difficulty in reproducing progressive PH in mice and genetic modification in rats. We tested whether a clinically-relevant Bmpr2 mutation affects the progressive features of monocrotaline (MCT) induced-PH in rats. Methods A monoallelic single nucleotide insertion in exon 1 of Bmpr2 (+/44insG) was generated in rats using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9, then PH, pulmonary vascular disease (PVD) and survival after MCT injection with or without a phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor, tadalafil, administration were assessed. Results The +/44insG rats had reduced BMPR2 signalling in the lungs compared with wild-type. PH and PVD assessed at 3-weeks after MCT injection were similar in wild-type and +/44insG rats. However, survival at 4-weeks after MCT injection was significantly reduced in +/44insG rats. Among the rats surviving at 4-weeks after MCT administration, +/44insG rats had increased weight ratio of right ventricle to left ventricle plus septum (RV/[LV + S]) and % medial wall thickness (MWT) in pulmonary arteries (PAs). Immunohistochemical analysis showed increased vessels with Ki67-positive cells in the lungs, decreased mature and increased immature smooth muscle cell phenotype markers in the PAs in +/44insG rats compared with wild-type at 3-weeks after MCT injection. Contraction of PA in response to prostaglandin-F2α and endothelin-1 were significantly reduced in the +/44insG rats. The +/44insG rats that had received tadalafil had a worse survival with a significant increase in RV/(LV + S), %MWT in distal PAs and RV myocardial fibrosis compared with wild-type. Conclusions The present study demonstrates that the Bmpr2 mutation promotes dedifferentiation of PA smooth muscle cells, late PVD and RV myocardial fibrosis and adversely impacts both the natural and post-treatment courses of MCT-PH in rats with significant effects only in the late stages and warrants preclinical studies using this new genetic model to optimize treatment outcomes of heritable PAH. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12931-022-02005-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Chanda Kabwe
- The Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu city, Mie, 514-8507, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Sawada
- The Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu city, Mie, 514-8507, Japan. .,The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan.
| | - Yoshihide Mitani
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Hironori Oshita
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan.,The Department of Pediatrics, Nagoya City University School of Medicine, Aichi, Japan
| | - Naoki Tsuboya
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Erquan Zhang
- The Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu city, Mie, 514-8507, Japan.,The Department of Neonatology, Fuzhou Children's Hospital of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fujian, China
| | - Junko Maruyama
- The Department of Clinical Engineering, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Mie, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Miyasaka
- Institute of Experimental Animal Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hideyoshi Ko
- The Department of Clinical Engineering, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Mie, Japan
| | - Kazunobu Oya
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Ito
- The Department of Cardiology and Nephrology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Noriko Yodoya
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Shoichiro Otsuki
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ohashi
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Ryuji Okamoto
- The Department of Cardiology and Nephrology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Kaoru Dohi
- The Department of Cardiology and Nephrology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Yuhei Nishimura
- The Department of Integrative Pharmacology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Tomoji Mashimo
- Institute of Experimental Animal Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.,Laboratory Animal Research Center, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Hirayama
- The Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Kazuo Maruyama
- The Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-174 Edobashi, Tsu city, Mie, 514-8507, Japan
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In vivo enrichment of busulfan-resistant germ cells for efficient production of transgenic avian models. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9127. [PMID: 33911174 PMCID: PMC8080772 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88706-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Most transgenic animals are generated using a genome-modified stem cell system and genome modification directly in embryos. Although this system is well-established in the development of transgenic animals, donor cell-derived transgenic animal production is inefficient in some cases. Especially in avian models such as chickens, the efficiency of transgenic animal production through primordial germ cells (PGCs) is highly variable compared with embryonic manipulation of mammalian species. Because germ cell and germline-competent stem cell-mediated systems that contain the transgene are enriched only at the upstream level during cell cultivation, the efficiency of transgenic animal production is unreliable. Therefore, we developed an in vivo selection model to enhance the efficiency of transgenic chicken production using microsomal glutathione-S-transferase II (MGSTII)-overexpressing PGCs that are resistant to the alkylating agent busulfan, which induces germ cell-specific cytotoxicity. Under in vitro conditions, MGSTII-tg PGCs were resistant to 1 μM busulfan, which was highly toxic to wild-type PGCs. In germline chimeric roosters, transgene-expressing germ cells were dominantly colonized in the recipient testes after busulfan exposure compared with non-treated germline chimera. In validation of germline transmission, donor PGC-derived progeny production efficiency was 94.68%, and the transgene production rate of heterozygous transgenic chickens was significantly increased in chickens that received 40 mg/kg busulfan (80.33–95.23%) compared with that of non-treated germline chimeras (51.18%). This system is expected to significantly improve the efficiency of generating transgenic chickens and other animal species by increasing the distribution of donor cells in adult testes.
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Zhang S, Shen J, Li D, Cheng Y. Strategies in the delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein for CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. Theranostics 2021; 11:614-648. [PMID: 33391496 PMCID: PMC7738854 DOI: 10.7150/thno.47007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has gained rapidly increasing attentions in recent years, however, the translation of this biotechnology into therapy has been hindered by efficient delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 materials into target cells. Direct delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 system as a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex consisting of Cas9 protein and single guide RNA (sgRNA) has emerged as a powerful and widespread method for genome editing due to its advantages of transient genome editing and reduced off-target effects. In this review, we summarized the current Cas9 RNP delivery systems including physical approaches and synthetic carriers. The mechanisms and beneficial roles of these strategies in intracellular Cas9 RNP delivery were reviewed. Examples in the development of stimuli-responsive and targeted carriers for RNP delivery are highlighted. Finally, the challenges of current Cas9 RNP delivery systems and perspectives in rational design of next generation materials for this promising field will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Zhang
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, School of Molecular Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jiangtao Shen
- The Second People's Hospital of Taizhou affiliated to Yangzhou University, Taizhou, 225500, China
| | - Dali Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Yiyun Cheng
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Matter Science and Technology, School of Molecular Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
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Kakizaki T, Ohshiro T, Itakura M, Konno K, Watanabe M, Mushiake H, Yanagawa Y. Rats deficient in the GAD65 isoform exhibit epilepsy and premature lethality. FASEB J 2020; 35:e21224. [PMID: 33236473 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202001935r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
GABA is synthesized by glutamate decarboxylase (GAD), which has two isoforms, namely, GAD65 and GAD67, encoded by the Gad2 and Gad1 genes, respectively. GAD65-deficient (Gad2-/- ) mice exhibit a reduction in brain GABA content after 1 month of age and show spontaneous seizures in adulthood. Approximately 25% of Gad2-/- mice died by 6 months of age. Our Western blot analysis demonstrated that the protein expression ratio of GAD65 to GAD67 in the brain was greater in rats than in mice during postnatal development, suggesting that the contribution of each GAD isoform to GABA functions differs between these two species. To evaluate whether GAD65 deficiency causes different phenotypes between rats and mice, we generated Gad2-/- rats using TALEN genome editing technology. Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses with new antibodies demonstrated that the GAD65 protein was undetectable in the Gad2-/- rat brain. Gad2-/- pups exhibited spontaneous seizures and paroxysmal discharge in EEG at postnatal weeks 3-4. More than 80% of the Gad2-/- rats died at postnatal days (PNDs) 17-23. GABA content in Gad2-/- brains was significantly lower than those in Gad2+/- and Gad2+/+ brains at PND17-19. These results suggest that the low levels of brain GABA content in Gad2-/- rats may lead to epilepsy followed by premature death, and that Gad2-/- rats are more severely affected than Gad2-/- mice. Considering that the GAD65/GAD67 ratio in human brains is more similar to that in rat brains than in mouse brains, Gad2-/- rats would be useful for further investigating the roles of GAD65 in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshikazu Kakizaki
- Department of Genetic and Behavioral Neuroscience, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Ohshiro
- Department of Physiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Makoto Itakura
- Department of Biochemistry, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Kohtarou Konno
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Masahiko Watanabe
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Hajime Mushiake
- Department of Physiology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yuchio Yanagawa
- Department of Genetic and Behavioral Neuroscience, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
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Combi-CRISPR: combination of NHEJ and HDR provides efficient and precise plasmid-based knock-ins in mice and rats. Hum Genet 2020; 140:277-287. [PMID: 32617796 PMCID: PMC7864826 DOI: 10.1007/s00439-020-02198-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
CRISPR-Cas9 are widely used for gene targeting in mice and rats. The non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) repair pathway, which is dominant in zygotes, efficiently induces insertion or deletion (indel) mutations as gene knockouts at targeted sites, whereas gene knock-ins (KIs) via homology-directed repair (HDR) are difficult to generate. In this study, we used a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) donor template with Cas9 and two single guide RNAs, one designed to cut the targeted genome sequences and the other to cut both the flanked genomic region and one homology arm of the dsDNA plasmid, which resulted in 20–33% KI efficiency among G0 pups. G0 KI mice carried NHEJ-dependent indel mutations at one targeting site that was designed at the intron region, and HDR-dependent precise KIs of the various donor cassettes spanning from 1 to 5 kbp, such as EGFP, mCherry, Cre, and genes of interest, at the other exon site. These findings indicate that this combinatorial method of NHEJ and HDR mediated by the CRISPR-Cas9 system facilitates the efficient and precise KIs of plasmid DNA cassettes in mice and rats.
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Hosseini N, Khanahmad H, Esfahani BN, Bandehpour M, Shariati L, Zahedi N, Kazemi B. Targeting of cholera toxin A ( ctxA) gene by zinc finger nuclease: pitfalls of using gene editing tools in prokaryotes. Res Pharm Sci 2020; 15:182-190. [PMID: 32582358 PMCID: PMC7306252 DOI: 10.4103/1735-5362.283818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and purpose: The study was launched to use zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) technology to disrupt the cholera toxin gene (ctxA) for inhibiting CT toxin production in Vibrio cholera (V. cholera). Experimental approach: An engineered ZFN was designed to target the catalytic site of the ctxA gene. The coding sequence of ZFN was cloned to pKD46, pTZ57R T/A vector, and E2-crimson plasmid and transformed to Escherichia coli (E. coli) Top10 and V. cholera. The efficiency of ZFN was evaluated by colony counting. Findings/Results: No expression was observed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blotting in transformed E. coli. The ctxA gene sequencing did not show any mutation. Polymerase chain reaction on pKD46-ZFN plasmid had negative results. Transformation of E. coli Top10 with T/A vectors containing whole ZFN sequence led to 7 colonies all of which contained bacteria with self-ligated vector. Transformation with left array ZFN led to 24 colonies of which 6 contained bacteria with self-ligated vector and 18 of them contained bacteria with vector/left array. Transformation of V. cholera with E2-crimson vectors containing whole ZFN did not produce any colonies. Transformation with left array vectors led to 17 colonies containing bacteria with vector/left array. Left array protein band was captured using western blot assay. Conclusions and implications: ZFN might have off target on bacterial genome causing lethal double-strand DNA break due to lack of non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) mechanism. It is recommended to develop ZFNs against bacterial genes, engineered packaging host with NHEJ repair system is essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nafiseh Hosseini
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R. Iran
| | - Hossein Khanahmad
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Bahram Nasr Esfahani
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Mojgan Bandehpour
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R. Iran
| | - Laleh Shariati
- Biosensor Research Center, Department of Biomaterials, Nanotechnology and Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Nushin Zahedi
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, I.R. Iran
| | - Bahram Kazemi
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R. Iran.,Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, I.R. Iran
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Genome-wide CRISPR knockout screens identify ADAMTSL3 and PTEN genes as suppressors of HCC proliferation and metastasis, respectively. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2020; 146:1509-1521. [PMID: 32266537 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-020-03207-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE It is important for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment that the targets related to its progression are identified. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated nuclease 9 (Cas9)-based genetic screening is a powerful tool for identifying genes with loss-of-function mutations that are critical for tumour growth and metastasis. METHODS We transduced the human SMMC7721 HCC cell line expressing Cas9 with a human genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 knockout (GeCKO) lentiviral library A (hGeCKOa) of 65,383 single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) targeting 19,050 human genes; we then subcutaneously transplanted the transduced cells into nude mice. RESULTS The transduced cells were found to proliferate and metastasize faster than the untransduced cells. Through next-generation sequencing, the genes potentially related to HCC proliferation and metastasis were identified. The sgRNAs targeting the ADAMTSL3 and PTEN genes appeared twice on the list of genes related to HCC proliferation and metastasis, respectively. Analysis based on the data mining of Oncomine revealed that the ADAMTSL3 and PTEN genes were expressed at lower levels in HCC cells than they were in normal liver cells, indicating their tumour-suppressive roles. Downregulation of ADAMTSL3 and PTEN displayed poor overall survival (OS) and predicted poor relapse-free survival (RFS), further supporting their tumour-suppressive roles. Moreover, knocking out either the ADAMTSL3 or PTEN genes promoted either the proliferation or metastasis of HCC cells, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Using both in vitro and in vivo approaches, we described the profound role of the ADAMTSL3 and PTEN genes. This study indicates novel candidate targets for use in HCC treatment and therapy.
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Acrosin is essential for sperm penetration through the zona pellucida in hamsters. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:2513-2518. [PMID: 31964830 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1917595117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During natural fertilization, mammalian spermatozoa must pass through the zona pellucida before reaching the plasma membrane of the oocyte. It is assumed that this step involves partial lysis of the zona by sperm acrosomal enzymes, but there has been no unequivocal evidence to support this view. Here we present evidence that acrosin, an acrosomal serine protease, plays an essential role in sperm penetration of the zona. We generated acrosin-knockout (KO) hamsters, using an in vivo transfection CRISPR/Cas9 system. Homozygous mutant males were completely sterile. Acrosin-KO spermatozoa ascended the female genital tract and reached ovulated oocytes in the oviduct ampulla, but never fertilized them. In vitro fertilization (IVF) experiments revealed that mutant spermatozoa attached to the zona, but failed to penetrate it. When the zona pellucida was removed before IVF, all oocytes were fertilized. This indicates that in hamsters, acrosin plays an indispensable role in allowing fertilizing spermatozoa to penetrate the zona. This study also suggests that the KO hamster system would be a useful model for identifying new gene functions or analyzing human and animal disorders because of its technical facility and reproducibility.
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Abstract
Being an elite athlete is an extremely coveted position, which can lead an individual to use doping. As knowledge is extended, doping techniques have become increasingly sophisticated, and the newest method of doping is gene doping. This article aims to present an updated bibliographic survey that addresses gene doping between 1983 and 2018. Anti-doping agencies have not yet approved any detection technique for this type of doping. The possibility of eradicating such doping is almost zero mainly because gene therapy advances rapidly. In this scenario, the future of gene doping must be discussed and decided before irreversible limits are exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Araujo Cantelmo
- Curso de Especialização em Ciências Forenses, Instituto Paulista de Estudos Bioéticos e Jurídicos (IPEBJ), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Celso Teixeira Mendes-Junior
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Departmento de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Daniel Junqueira Dorta
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Departmento de Química, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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Emmert AS, Iwasawa E, Shula C, Schultz P, Lindquist D, Dunn RS, Fugate EM, Hu YC, Mangano FT, Goto J. Impaired neural differentiation and glymphatic CSF flow in the Ccdc39 rat model of neonatal hydrocephalus: genetic interaction with L1cam. Dis Model Mech 2019; 12:12/11/dmm040972. [PMID: 31771992 PMCID: PMC6898999 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.040972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonatal hydrocephalus affects about one child per 1000 births and is a major congenital brain abnormality. We previously discovered a gene mutation within the coiled-coil domain-containing 39 (Ccdc39) gene, which causes the progressive hydrocephalus (prh) phenotype in mice due to lack of ependymal-cilia-mediated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow. In this study, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to introduce the Ccdc39 gene mutation into rats, which are more suitable for imaging and surgical experiments. The Ccdc39prh/prh mutants exhibited mild ventriculomegaly at postnatal day (P)5 that progressed into severe hydrocephalus by P11 (P<0.001). After P11, macrophage and neutrophil invasion along with subarachnoid hemorrhage were observed in mutant brains showing reduced neurofilament density, hypomyelination and increased cell death signals compared with wild-type brains. Significantly more macrophages entered the brain parenchyma at P5 before hemorrhaging was noted and increased expression of a pro-inflammatory factor (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) was found in the cortical neural and endothelial cells in the mutant brains at P11. Glymphatic-mediated CSF circulation was progressively impaired along the middle cerebral artery from P11 as mutants developed severe hydrocephalus (P<0.001). In addition, Ccdc39prh/prh mutants with L1 cell adhesion molecule (L1cam) gene mutation, which causes X-linked human congenital hydrocephalus, showed an accelerated early hydrocephalus phenotype (P<0.05-0.01). Our findings in Ccdc39prh/prh mutant rats demonstrate a possible causal role of neuroinflammation in neonatal hydrocephalus development, which involves impaired cortical development and glymphatic CSF flow. Improved understanding of inflammatory responses and the glymphatic system in neonatal hydrocephalus could lead to new therapeutic strategies for this condition. This article has an associated First Person interview with the joint first authors of the paper. Summary: Glymphatic CSF circulation and development of the cerebral cortex are impaired in our new genetic rat model of neonatal hydrocephalus with the onset of parenchymal inflammation and hemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Scott Emmert
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Eri Iwasawa
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Crystal Shula
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Preston Schultz
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Diana Lindquist
- Division of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - R Scott Dunn
- Division of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Fugate
- Division of Radiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Yueh-Chiang Hu
- Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Francesco T Mangano
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - June Goto
- Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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de Graeff N, Jongsma KR, Johnston J, Hartley S, Bredenoord AL. The ethics of genome editing in non-human animals: a systematic review of reasons reported in the academic literature. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180106. [PMID: 30905297 PMCID: PMC6452271 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, new genome editing technologies have emerged that can edit the genome of non-human animals with progressively increasing efficiency. Despite ongoing academic debate about the ethical implications of these technologies, no comprehensive overview of this debate exists. To address this gap in the literature, we conducted a systematic review of the reasons reported in the academic literature for and against the development and use of genome editing technologies in animals. Most included articles were written by academics from the biomedical or animal sciences. The reported reasons related to seven themes: human health, efficiency, risks and uncertainty, animal welfare, animal dignity, environmental considerations and public acceptability. Our findings illuminate several key considerations about the academic debate, including a low disciplinary diversity in the contributing academics, a scarcity of systematic comparisons of potential consequences of using these technologies, an underrepresentation of animal interests, and a disjunction between the public and academic debate on this topic. As such, this article can be considered a call for a broad range of academics to get increasingly involved in the discussion about genome editing, to incorporate animal interests and systematic comparisons, and to further discuss the aims and methods of public involvement. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'The ecology and evolution of prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas adaptive immune systems'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nienke de Graeff
- Department of Medical Humanities, Julius Center, University Medical Center Utrecht/Utrecht University, PO Box 85500, Utrecht, GA 3508, The Netherlands
| | - Karin R. Jongsma
- Department of Medical Humanities, Julius Center, University Medical Center Utrecht/Utrecht University, PO Box 85500, Utrecht, GA 3508, The Netherlands
| | - Josephine Johnston
- Research Department, The Hastings Center, 21 Malcolm Gordon Road, Garrison, NY 10524, USA
| | - Sarah Hartley
- The University of Exeter Business School, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 4PU, UK
| | - Annelien L. Bredenoord
- Department of Medical Humanities, Julius Center, University Medical Center Utrecht/Utrecht University, PO Box 85500, Utrecht, GA 3508, The Netherlands
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14
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A Human Polymorphism in CHRNA5 Is Linked to Relapse to Nicotine Seeking in Transgenic Rats. Curr Biol 2018; 28:3244-3253.e7. [PMID: 30293722 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is a chronic and relapsing disorder with an important genetic component that represents a major public health issue. Meta-analysis of large-scale human genome-wide association studies (GWASs) identified a frequent non-synonymous SNP in the gene coding for the α5 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α5SNP), which significantly increases the risk for tobacco dependence and delays smoking cessation. To dissect the neuronal mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to nicotine addiction in carriers of the α5SNP, we created rats expressing this polymorphism using zinc finger nuclease technology and evaluated their behavior under the intravenous nicotine-self-administration paradigm. The electrophysiological responses of their neurons to nicotine were also evaluated. α5SNP rats self-administered more nicotine at high doses and exhibited higher nicotine-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking than wild-type rats. Higher reinstatement was associated with altered neuronal activity in several discrete areas that are interconnected, including in the interpeduncular nucleus (IPN), a GABAergic structure that strongly expresses α5-containing nicotinic receptors. The altered reactivity of IPN neurons of α5SNP rats to nicotine was confirmed electrophysiologically. In conclusion, the α5SNP polymorphism is a major risk factor for nicotine intake at high doses and for relapse to nicotine seeking in rats, a dual effect that reflects the human condition. Our results also suggest an important role for the IPN in the higher relapse to nicotine seeking observed in α5SNP rats.
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15
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Izumi R, Kusakabe T, Noguchi M, Iwakura H, Tanaka T, Miyazawa T, Aotani D, Hosoda K, Kangawa K, Nakao K. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Angptl8 knockout suppresses plasma triglyceride concentrations and adiposity in rats. J Lipid Res 2018; 59:1575-1585. [PMID: 30042156 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m082099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiopoietin-like protein (ANGPTL)8 is a liver- and adipocyte-derived protein that controls plasma triglyceride (TG) levels. Most animal studies have used mouse models. Here, we generated an Angptl8 KO rat model using a clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) (CRISPR/Cas9) system to clarify the roles of ANGPTL8 in glucose and lipid metabolism. Compared with WT rats, Angptl8 KO rats had lower body weight and fat content, associated with impaired lipogenesis in adipocytes; no differences existed between the groups in food intake or rectal temperature. Plasma TG levels in both the fasted and refed states were significantly lower in KO than in WT rats, and an oral fat tolerance test showed decreased plasma TG excursion in Angptl8 KO rats. Higher levels of lipase activity in the heart and greater expression of genes related to β-oxidation in heart and skeletal muscle were observed in Angptl8 KO rats. However, there were no significant differences between KO and WT rats in glucose metabolism or the histology of pancreatic β-cells on both standard and high-fat diets. In conclusion, we demonstrated that Angptl8 KO in rats resulted in lower body weight and plasma TG levels without affecting glucose metabolism. ANGPTL8 might be an important therapeutic target for obesity and dyslipidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Izumi
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan; Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Nutrition, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Toru Kusakabe
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan; Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Hypertension, Clinical Research Institute, National Hospital Organization Kyoto Medical Center, Kyoto, Japan.
| | - Michio Noguchi
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Iwakura
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Tanaka
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takashi Miyazawa
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Daisuke Aotani
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kiminori Hosoda
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan; Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Lifestyle-Related Diseases, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kenji Kangawa
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan; National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuwa Nakao
- Medical Innovation Center Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
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16
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Xu J, Zhang L, Xie M, Li Y, Huang P, Saunders TL, Fox DA, Rosenquist R, Lin F. Role of Complement in a Rat Model of Paclitaxel-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:4094-4101. [PMID: 29695418 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a painful and debilitating side effect of cancer chemotherapy with an unclear pathogenesis. Consequently, the available therapies for this neuropathic pain syndrome are inadequate, leading to a significantly reduced quality of life in many patients. Complement, a key component of the innate immune system, has been associated with neuroinflammation, a potentially important trigger of some types of neuropathic pain. However, the role of complement in CIPN remains unclear. To address this issue, we developed a C3 knockout (KO) rat model and induced CIPN in these KO rats and wild-type littermates via the i.p. administration of paclitaxel, a chemotherapeutic agent associated with CIPN. We then compared the severity of mechanical allodynia, complement activation, and intradermal nerve fiber loss between the groups. We found that 1) i.p. paclitaxel administration activated complement in wild-type rats, 2) paclitaxel-induced mechanical allodynia was significantly reduced in C3 KO rats, and 3) the paclitaxel-induced loss of intradermal nerve fibers was markedly attenuated in C3 KO rats. In in vitro studies, we found that paclitaxel-treated rat neuronal cells activated complement, leading to cellular injury. Our findings demonstrate a previously unknown but pivotal role of complement in CIPN and suggest that complement may be a new target for the development of novel therapeutics to manage this painful disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jijun Xu
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195; .,Department of Pain Management, Anesthesiology Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Lingjun Zhang
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Mian Xie
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Ping Huang
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Thomas L Saunders
- Transgenic Animal Model Core Facility, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - David A Fox
- Division of Rheumatology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and.,Clinical Autoimmunity Center of Excellence, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Richard Rosenquist
- Department of Pain Management, Anesthesiology Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195
| | - Feng Lin
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195;
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17
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Satoh D, Abe S, Kobayashi K, Nakajima Y, Oshimura M, Kazuki Y. Human and mouse artificial chromosome technologies for studies of pharmacokinetics and toxicokinetics. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2018; 33:17-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Abstract
Kidney cell death plays a key role in the progression of life-threatening renal diseases, such as acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease. Injured and dying epithelial and endothelial cells take part in complex communication with the innate immune system, which drives the progression of cell death and the decrease in renal function. To improve our understanding of kidney cell death dynamics and its impact on renal disease, a study approach is needed that facilitates the visualization of renal function and morphology in real time. Intravital multiphoton microscopy of the kidney has been used for more than a decade and made substantial contributions to our understanding of kidney physiology and pathophysiology. It is a unique tool that relates renal structure and function in a time- and spatial-dependent manner. Basic renal function, such as microvascular blood flow regulation and glomerular filtration, can be determined in real time and homeostatic alterations, which are linked inevitably to cell death and can be depicted down to the subcellular level. This review provides an overview of the available techniques to study kidney dysfunction and inflammation in terms of cell death in vivo, and addresses how this novel approach can be used to improve our understanding of cell death dynamics in renal disease.
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19
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Application of genome editing technologies in rats for human disease models. J Hum Genet 2017; 63:115-123. [DOI: 10.1038/s10038-017-0346-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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20
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CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing of the filamentous fungi: the state of the art. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:7435-7443. [PMID: 28887634 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8497-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 08/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, a variety of genetic tools have been developed and applied to various filamentous fungi, which are widely applied in agriculture and the food industry. However, the low efficiency of gene targeting has for many years hampered studies on functional genomics in this important group of microorganisms. The emergence of CRISPR/Cas9 genome-editing technology has sparked a revolution in genetic research due to its high efficiency, versatility, and easy operation and opened the door for the discovery and exploitation of many new natural products. Although the application of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in filamentous fungi is still in its infancy compared to its common use in E. coli, yeasts, and mammals, the deep development of this system will certainly drive the exploitation of fungal diversity. In this review, we summarize the research progress on CRISPR/Cas9 systems in filamentous fungi and finally highlight further prospects in this area.
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21
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Knowlton MN, Smith CL. Naming CRISPR alleles: endonuclease-mediated mutation nomenclature across species. Mamm Genome 2017; 28:367-376. [PMID: 28589392 PMCID: PMC5569137 DOI: 10.1007/s00335-017-9698-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The widespread use of CRISPR/Cas and other targeted endonuclease technologies in many species has led to an explosion in the generation of new mutations and alleles. The ability to generate many different mutations from the same target sequence either by homology-directed repair with a donor sequence or non-homologous end joining-induced insertions and deletions necessitates a means for representing these mutations in literature and databases. Standardized nomenclature can be used to generate unambiguous, concise, and specific symbols to represent mutations and alleles. The research communities of a variety of species using CRISPR/Cas and other endonuclease-mediated mutation technologies have developed different approaches to naming and identifying such alleles and mutations. While some organism-specific research communities have developed allele nomenclature that incorporates the method of generation within the official allele or mutant symbol, others use metadata tags that include method of generation or mutagen. Organism-specific research community databases together with organism-specific nomenclature committees are leading the way in providing standardized nomenclature and metadata to facilitate the integration of data from alleles and mutations generated using CRISPR/Cas and other targeted endonucleases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cynthia L Smith
- Mouse Genome Informatics, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, 04609, USA
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22
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Higashijima Y, Hirano S, Nangaku M, Nureki O. Applications of the CRISPR-Cas9 system in kidney research. Kidney Int 2017; 92:324-335. [PMID: 28433382 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2017.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The recently discovered clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) is an RNA-guided DNA nuclease, and has been harnessed for the development of simple, efficient, and relatively inexpensive technologies to precisely manipulate the genomic information in virtually all cell types and organisms. The CRIPSR-Cas9 systems have already been effectively used to disrupt multiple genes simultaneously, create conditional alleles, and generate reporter proteins, even in vivo. The ability of Cas9 to target a specific genomic region has also been exploited for various applications, such as transcriptional regulation, epigenetic control, and chromosome labeling. Here we first describe the molecular mechanism of the RNA-guided DNA targeting by the CRISPR-Cas9 system and then outline the current applications of this system as a genome-editing tool in mice and other species, to better model and study human diseases. We also discuss the practical and potential uses of the CRISPR-Cas9 system in kidney research and highlight the further applications of this technology beyond genome editing. Undoubtedly, the CRISPR-Cas9 system holds enormous potential for revolutionizing and accelerating kidney research and therapeutic applications in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiki Higashijima
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan; Isotope Science Center, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Seiichi Hirano
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaomi Nangaku
- Division of Nephrology and Endocrinology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Osamu Nureki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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23
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Exploring the potential of genome editing CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Gene 2017; 599:1-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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24
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Moreno-Moral A, Petretto E. From integrative genomics to systems genetics in the rat to link genotypes to phenotypes. Dis Model Mech 2016; 9:1097-1110. [PMID: 27736746 PMCID: PMC5087832 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.026104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Complementary to traditional gene mapping approaches used to identify the hereditary components of complex diseases, integrative genomics and systems genetics have emerged as powerful strategies to decipher the key genetic drivers of molecular pathways that underlie disease. Broadly speaking, integrative genomics aims to link cellular-level traits (such as mRNA expression) to the genome to identify their genetic determinants. With the characterization of several cellular-level traits within the same system, the integrative genomics approach evolved into a more comprehensive study design, called systems genetics, which aims to unravel the complex biological networks and pathways involved in disease, and in turn map their genetic control points. The first fully integrated systems genetics study was carried out in rats, and the results, which revealed conserved trans-acting genetic regulation of a pro-inflammatory network relevant to type 1 diabetes, were translated to humans. Many studies using different organisms subsequently stemmed from this example. The aim of this Review is to describe the most recent advances in the fields of integrative genomics and systems genetics applied in the rat, with a focus on studies of complex diseases ranging from inflammatory to cardiometabolic disorders. We aim to provide the genetics community with a comprehensive insight into how the systems genetics approach came to life, starting from the first integrative genomics strategies [such as expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) mapping] and concluding with the most sophisticated gene network-based analyses in multiple systems and disease states. Although not limited to studies that have been directly translated to humans, we will focus particularly on the successful investigations in the rat that have led to primary discoveries of genes and pathways relevant to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aida Moreno-Moral
- Program in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-National University of Singapore (NUS) Medical School, Singapore
| | - Enrico Petretto
- Program in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-National University of Singapore (NUS) Medical School, Singapore
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25
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Hansen SA, Hart ML, Busi S, Parker T, Goerndt A, Jones K, Amos-Landgraf JM, Bryda EC. Fischer-344 Tp53-knockout rats exhibit a high rate of bone and brain neoplasia with frequent metastasis. Dis Model Mech 2016; 9:1139-1146. [PMID: 27528400 PMCID: PMC5087826 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.025767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Somatic mutations in the Tp53 tumor suppressor gene are the most commonly seen genetic alterations in cancer, and germline mutations in Tp53 predispose individuals to a variety of early-onset cancers. Development of appropriate translational animal models that carry mutations in Tp53 and recapitulate human disease are important for drug discovery, biomarker development and disease modeling. Current Tp53 mouse and rat models have significant phenotypic and genetic limitations, and often do not recapitulate certain aspects of human disease. We used a marker-assisted speed congenic approach to transfer a well-characterized Tp53-mutant allele from an outbred rat to the genetically inbred Fischer-344 (F344) rat to create the F344-Tp53tm1(EGFP-Pac)Qly/Rrrc (F344-Tp53) strain. On the F344 genetic background, the tumor spectrum shifted, with the primary tumor types being osteosarcomas and meningeal sarcomas, compared to the hepatic hemangiosarcoma and lymphoma identified in the original outbred stock model. The Fischer model is more consistent with the early onset of bone and central nervous system sarcomas found in humans with germline Tp53 mutations. The frequency of osteosarcomas in F344-Tp53 homozygous and heterozygous animals was 57% and 36%, respectively. Tumors were highly representative of human disease radiographically and histologically, with tumors found primarily on long bones with frequent pulmonary metastases. Importantly, the rapid onset of osteosarcomas in this promising new model fills a current void in animal models that recapitulate human pediatric osteosarcomas and could facilitate studies to identify therapeutic targets. Editors' choice: Transferring a Tp53-knockout allele from an outbred rat stock to the F344 inbred rat genetic background alters the spectrum of tumors, providing a model of early-onset brain and bone sarcomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Hansen
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Marcia L Hart
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Susheel Busi
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Taybor Parker
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Angela Goerndt
- Rat Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Kevin Jones
- Departments of Orthopaedics and Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - James M Amos-Landgraf
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA Rat Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Bryda
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA Rat Resource and Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MI 65211, USA
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26
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Periwal V. A comprehensive overview of computational resources to aid in precision genome editing with engineered nucleases. Brief Bioinform 2016; 18:698-711. [DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbw052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Taguchi K, Takaku M, Egner PA, Morita M, Kaneko T, Mashimo T, Kensler TW, Yamamoto M. Generation of a New Model Rat: Nrf2 Knockout Rats Are Sensitive to Aflatoxin B1 Toxicity. Toxicol Sci 2016; 152:40-52. [PMID: 27071940 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
THE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR NRF2: (NF-E2-related-factor 2) REGULATES A BATTERY OF ANTIOXIDATIVE STRESS-RESPONSE GENES AND DETOXICATION GENES, AND NRF2 KNOCKOUT LINES OF MICE HAVE BEEN CONTRIBUTING CRITICALLY TO THE CLARIFICATION OF ROLES THAT NRF2 PLAYS FOR CELL PROTECTION HOWEVER, THERE ARE APPARENT LIMITATIONS IN USE OF THE MOUSE MODELS FOR INSTANCE, RATS EXHIBIT MORE SUITABLE FEATURES FOR TOXICOLOGICAL OR PHYSIOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS THAN MICE IN THIS STUDY, WE GENERATED 2 LINES OF NRF2 KNOCKOUT RATS BY USING A GENOME EDITING TECHNOLOGY; 1 LINE HARBORS A 7-BP DELETION Δ7 AND THE OTHER LINE HARBORS A 1-BP INSERTION +1 IN THE NRF2 GENE IN THE LIVERS OF RATS HOMOZYGOUSLY DELETING THE NRF2 GENE, AN ACTIVATOR OF NRF2 SIGNALING, CDDO-IM, COULD NOT INDUCE EXPRESSION OF REPRESENTATIVE NRF2 TARGET GENES TO EXAMINE ALTERED TOXICOLOGICAL RESPONSE, WE TREATED THE NRF2 KNOCKOUT RATS WITH AFLATOXIN B1 AFB1, A CARCINOGENIC MYCOTOXIN THAT ELICITS GENE MUTATIONS THROUGH BINDING OF ITS METABOLITES TO DNA AND FOR WHICH THE RAT HAS BEEN PROPOSED AS A REASONABLE SURROGATE FOR HUMAN TOXICITY INDEED, IN THE NRF2 KNOCKOUT RAT LIVERS THE ENZYMES OF THE AFB1 DETOXICATION PATHWAY WERE SIGNIFICANTLY DOWNREGULATED SINGLE DOSE ADMINISTRATION OF AFB1 INCREASED HEPATOTOXICITY AND BINDING OF AFB1-N7-GUANINE TO HEPATIC DNA IN NRF2 KNOCKOUT RATS COMPARED WITH WILD-TYPE NRF2 KNOCKOUT RATS REPEATEDLY TREATED WITH AFB1 WERE PRONE TO LETHALITY AND CDDO-IM WAS NO LONGER PROTECTIVE THESE RESULTS DEMONSTRATE THAT NRF2 KNOCKOUT RATS ARE QUITE SENSITIVE TO AFB1 TOXICITIES AND THIS RAT GENOTYPE EMERGES AS A NEW MODEL ANIMAL IN TOXICOLOGY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Taguchi
- *Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Aoba, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Misaki Takaku
- *Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Aoba, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Patricia A Egner
- Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Masanobu Morita
- *Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Aoba, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Takehito Kaneko
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Tomoji Mashimo
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Thomas W Kensler
- Bloomberg School of Public Health, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261
| | - Masayuki Yamamoto
- *Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Aoba, Sendai 980-8575, Japan;
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Tokunaga A, Anai H, Hanada K. Mechanisms of gene targeting in higher eukaryotes. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:523-33. [PMID: 26507245 PMCID: PMC11108335 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-2073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Targeted genome modifications using techniques that alter the genomic information of interest have contributed to multiple studies in both basic and applied biology. Traditionally, in gene targeting, the target-site integration of a targeting vector by homologous recombination is used. However, this strategy has several technical problems. The first problem is the extremely low frequency of gene targeting, which makes obtaining recombinant clones an extremely labor intensive task. The second issue is the limited number of biomaterials to which gene targeting can be applied. Traditional gene targeting hardly occurs in most of the human adherent cell lines. However, a new approach using designer nucleases that can introduce site-specific double-strand breaks in genomic DNAs has increased the efficiency of gene targeting. This new method has also expanded the number of biomaterials to which gene targeting could be applied. Here, we summarize various strategies for target gene modification, including a comparison of traditional gene targeting with designer nucleases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akinori Tokunaga
- The Tokunaga Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu, Oita, 879-5593, Japan
- Section of Physiology, Department of Integrative Aging Neuroscience, National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), 7-430, Morioka-cho, Obu, Aichi, 474-8511, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Anai
- Clinical Engineering Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu, Oita, 879-5593, Japan
| | - Katsuhiro Hanada
- Clinical Engineering Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu, Oita, 879-5593, Japan.
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Yoshimi K, Kunihiro Y, Kaneko T, Nagahora H, Voigt B, Mashimo T. ssODN-mediated knock-in with CRISPR-Cas for large genomic regions in zygotes. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10431. [PMID: 26786405 PMCID: PMC4736110 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The CRISPR-Cas system is a powerful tool for generating genetically modified animals; however, targeted knock-in (KI) via homologous recombination remains difficult in zygotes. Here we show efficient gene KI in rats by combining CRISPR-Cas with single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotides (ssODNs). First, a 1-kb ssODN co-injected with guide RNA (gRNA) and Cas9 messenger RNA produce GFP-KI at the rat Thy1 locus. Then, two gRNAs with two 80-bp ssODNs direct efficient integration of a 5.5-kb CAG-GFP vector into the Rosa26 locus via ssODN-mediated end joining. This protocol also achieves KI of a 200-kb BAC containing the human SIRPA locus, concomitantly knocking out the rat Sirpa gene. Finally, three gRNAs and two ssODNs replace 58-kb of the rat Cyp2d cluster with a 6.2-kb human CYP2D6 gene. These ssODN-mediated KI protocols can be applied to any target site with any donor vector without the need to construct homology arms, thus simplifying genome engineering in living organisms. CRISPR-Cas9 is a powerful genome engineering tool but gene knock-in is limited by fragment size and efficiency of recombination. Here the authors used a modified strategy employing single-strand oligonucleotides to efficiently knock-in large DNA fragments and humanise native rat loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuto Yoshimi
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.,Mouse Genomics Resource Laboratory, National Institute of Genetics, Shizuoka 411-8540, Japan
| | - Yayoi Kunihiro
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.,Institute of Experimental Animal Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Takehito Kaneko
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | | | - Birger Voigt
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Tomoji Mashimo
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.,Institute of Experimental Animal Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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30
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Chandrasegaran S, Carroll D. Origins of Programmable Nucleases for Genome Engineering. J Mol Biol 2015; 428:963-89. [PMID: 26506267 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2015.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Genome engineering with programmable nucleases depends on cellular responses to a targeted double-strand break (DSB). The first truly targetable reagents were the zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) showing that arbitrary DNA sequences could be addressed for cleavage by protein engineering, ushering in the breakthrough in genome manipulation. ZFNs resulted from basic research on zinc finger proteins and the FokI restriction enzyme (which revealed a bipartite structure with a separable DNA-binding domain and a non-specific cleavage domain). Studies on the mechanism of cleavage by 3-finger ZFNs established that the preferred substrates were paired binding sites, which doubled the size of the target sequence recognition from 9 to 18bp, long enough to specify a unique genomic locus in plant and mammalian cells. Soon afterwards, a ZFN-induced DSB was shown to stimulate homologous recombination in cells. Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) that are based on bacterial TALEs fused to the FokI cleavage domain expanded this capability. The fact that ZFNs and TALENs have been used for genome modification of more than 40 different organisms and cell types attests to the success of protein engineering. The most recent technology platform for delivering a targeted DSB to cellular genomes is that of the RNA-guided nucleases, which are based on the naturally occurring Type II prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas9 system. Unlike ZFNs and TALENs that use protein motifs for DNA sequence recognition, CRISPR-Cas9 depends on RNA-DNA recognition. The advantages of the CRISPR-Cas9 system-the ease of RNA design for new targets and the dependence on a single, constant Cas9 protein-have led to its wide adoption by research laboratories around the world. These technology platforms have equipped scientists with an unprecedented ability to modify cells and organisms almost at will, with wide-ranging implications across biology and medicine. However, these nucleases have also been shown to cut at off-target sites with mutagenic consequences. Therefore, issues such as efficacy, specificity and delivery are likely to drive selection of reagents for particular purposes. Human therapeutic applications of these technologies will ultimately depend on risk versus benefit analysis and informed consent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivasan Chandrasegaran
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
| | - Dana Carroll
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah School of Medicine, 15 North Medical Drive East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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31
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Yamamoto S, Ooshima Y, Nakata M, Yano T, Nishimura N, Nishigaki R, Satomi Y, Matsumoto H, Matsumoto Y, Takeyama M. Efficient gene-targeting in rat embryonic stem cells by CRISPR/Cas and generation of human kynurenine aminotransferase II (KAT II) knock-in rat. Transgenic Res 2015; 24:991-1001. [PMID: 26454650 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-015-9909-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The relative proportion of kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) I-IV activities in the brain is similar between humans and rats. Moreover, KAT II is considered to be the main enzyme for kynurenic acid production in the brain. Taken together, human KAT II knock-in (hKAT II KI) rats will become a valuable tool for the evaluation of KAT II targeted drugs as a human mimetic model. Although we initially tried the approach by conventional gene-targeting via embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to generate them, we had to give up the production because of no recombinant ESCs. Accordingly, we developed a method to improve the efficiency of homologous recombination (HR) in ESCs by the combination with the CRISPR/Cas system. Co-electroporation of Cas9 plasmid, single guide RNA plasmid and hKAT II KI vector increased the number of drug-resistant colonies and greatly enhanced the HR efficiency from 0 to 36 %. All the clones which we obtained showed the same sequence as designed. These recombinant clones resulted in chimeras that transmitted the hKAT II KI allele to their offspring. hKAT II KI rats showed no reduction of KATs mRNA expression and the amount of kynurenic acid was similar between the hKAT II KI rats and the wild type in their brains. These results indicate that the methodology presented in this report can overcome the problem encountered in conventional gene-targeting that prevented production of humanized rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Yamamoto
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan.
| | - Yuki Ooshima
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Mitsugu Nakata
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Takashi Yano
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Naoya Nishimura
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Ryuuichi Nishigaki
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Satomi
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Matsumoto
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshio Matsumoto
- Takeda Rabics Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan
| | - Michiyasu Takeyama
- Integrated Technology Research Laboratories, Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 2-26-1, Muraoka-higashi, Fujisawa City, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan.
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Venken KJT, Sarrion-Perdigones A, Vandeventer PJ, Abel NS, Christiansen AE, Hoffman KL. Genome engineering: Drosophila melanogaster and beyond. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 5:233-67. [PMID: 26447401 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A central challenge in investigating biological phenomena is the development of techniques to modify genomic DNA with nucleotide precision that can be transmitted through the germ line. Recent years have brought a boon in these technologies, now collectively known as genome engineering. Defined genomic manipulations at the nucleotide level enable a variety of reverse engineering paradigms, providing new opportunities to interrogate diverse biological functions. These genetic modifications include controlled removal, insertion, and substitution of genetic fragments, both small and large. Small fragments up to a few kilobases (e.g., single nucleotide mutations, small deletions, or gene tagging at single or multiple gene loci) to large fragments up to megabase resolution can be manipulated at single loci to create deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations of substantial sections of whole chromosome arms. A specialized substitution of chromosomal portions that presumably are functionally orthologous between different organisms through syntenic replacement, can provide proof of evolutionary conservation between regulatory sequences. Large transgenes containing endogenous or synthetic DNA can be integrated at defined genomic locations, permitting an alternative proof of evolutionary conservation, and sophisticated transgenes can be used to interrogate biological phenomena. Precision engineering can additionally be used to manipulate the genomes of organelles (e.g., mitochondria). Novel genome engineering paradigms are often accelerated in existing, easily genetically tractable model organisms, primarily because these paradigms can be integrated in a rigorous, existing technology foundation. The Drosophila melanogaster fly model is ideal for these types of studies. Due to its small genome size, having just four chromosomes, the vast amount of cutting-edge genetic technologies, and its short life-cycle and inexpensive maintenance requirements, the fly is exceptionally amenable to complex genetic analysis using advanced genome engineering. Thus, highly sophisticated methods developed in the fly model can be used in nearly any sequenced organism. Here, we summarize different ways to perform precise inheritable genome engineering using integrases, recombinases, and DNA nucleases in the D. melanogaster. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen J T Venken
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Verna and Marrs McLean, Houston, TX, USA.,Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.,Program in Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Paul J Vandeventer
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Verna and Marrs McLean, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nicholas S Abel
- Department of Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Audrey E Christiansen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Verna and Marrs McLean, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Kristi L Hoffman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Verna and Marrs McLean, Houston, TX, USA
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Ménoret S, De Cian A, Tesson L, Remy S, Usal C, Boulé JB, Boix C, Fontanière S, Crénéguy A, Nguyen TH, Brusselle L, Thinard R, Gauguier D, Concordet JP, Cherifi Y, Fraichard A, Giovannangeli C, Anegon I. Homology-directed repair in rodent zygotes using Cas9 and TALEN engineered proteins. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14410. [PMID: 26442875 PMCID: PMC4595769 DOI: 10.1038/srep14410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The generation of genetically-modified organisms has been revolutionized by the development of new genome editing technologies based on the use of gene-specific nucleases, such as meganucleases, ZFNs, TALENs and CRISPRs-Cas9 systems. The most rapid and cost-effective way to generate genetically-modified animals is by microinjection of the nucleic acids encoding gene-specific nucleases into zygotes. However, the efficiency of the procedure can still be improved. In this work we aim to increase the efficiency of CRISPRs-Cas9 and TALENs homology-directed repair by using TALENs and Cas9 proteins, instead of mRNA, microinjected into rat and mouse zygotes along with long or short donor DNAs. We observed that Cas9 protein was more efficient at homology-directed repair than mRNA, while TALEN protein was less efficient than mRNA at inducing homology-directed repair. Our results indicate that the use of Cas9 protein could represent a simple and practical methodological alternative to Cas9 mRNA in the generation of genetically-modified rats and mice as well as probably some other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Séverine Ménoret
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
| | - Anne De Cian
- INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Structure and Instability of Genomes, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; CP26 57 rue Cuvier, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Tesson
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
| | - Séverine Remy
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
| | - Claire Usal
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Boulé
- INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Structure and Instability of Genomes, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; CP26 57 rue Cuvier, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Charlotte Boix
- INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Structure and Instability of Genomes, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; CP26 57 rue Cuvier, F75005 Paris, France
| | | | | | - Tuan H Nguyen
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France
| | | | - Reynald Thinard
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
| | - Dominique Gauguier
- Sorbonne Universities, University Pierre &Marie Curie, University Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM UMR_S 1138, Cordeliers Research Centre, 75006 Paris, France.,Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, University Pierre &Marie Curie, Boulevard de l'Hopital, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Paul Concordet
- INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Structure and Instability of Genomes, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; CP26 57 rue Cuvier, F75005 Paris, France
| | | | | | - Carine Giovannangeli
- INSERM U1154, CNRS UMR7196, Structure and Instability of Genomes, Sorbonne Universités, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle; CP26 57 rue Cuvier, F75005 Paris, France
| | - Ignacio Anegon
- INSERM UMR 1064-ITUN; CHU de Nantes, Nantes F44093, France.,Platform Rat Transgenesis Immunophenomic, SFR François Bonamy, CNRS UMS3556 Nantes, F44093, France
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Abe K, Takamatsu N, Ishikawa K, Tsurumi T, Tanimoto S, Sakurai Y, Lisse T, Imai K, Serikawa T, Mashimo T. Novel ENU-Induced Mutation in Tbx6 Causes Dominant Spondylocostal Dysostosis-Like Vertebral Malformations in the Rat. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130231. [PMID: 26090680 PMCID: PMC4474719 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2014] [Accepted: 05/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital vertebral malformations caused by embryonic segmentation defects are relatively common in humans and domestic animals. Although reverse genetics approaches in mice have provided information on the molecular mechanisms of embryonic somite segmentation, hypothesis-driven approaches cannot adequately reflect human dysmorphology within the population. In a N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) mutagenesis project in Kyoto, the Oune mutant rat strain was isolated due to a short and kinked caudal vertebra phenotype. Skeletal staining of heterozygous rats showed partial loss of the cervical vertebrae as well as hemivertebrae and fused vertebral blocks in lumbar and sacral vertebrae. In homozygous embryos, severe displacement of the whole vertebrae was observed. The Oune locus was genetically mapped to rat chromosome 1 using 202 backcross animals and 50 genome-wide microsatellite markers. Subsequently, a miss-sense mutation in the Tbx6 gene was identified in the critical region. Although the mutation is located within the T-box domain near a predicted dimmer-interface, in vitro experiments revealed that the Tbx6 variant retains normal DNA binding ability and translational efficiency. However, the variant has decreased transcriptional activation potential in response to Notch-mediated signaling. Recently, it was reported that a dominant type of familial spondylocostal dysostosis is caused by a stoploss mutation in TBX6. Thus, we propose that partial dysfunction of Tbx6 leads to similar congenital vertebral malformations in both humans and rats. The Oune strain could be a unique animal model for dominant spondylocostal dysostosis and is useful for molecular dissection of the pathology of congenital vertebral malformations in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichiro Abe
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Nobuhiko Takamatsu
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kumiko Ishikawa
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Toshiko Tsurumi
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Sho Tanimoto
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yukina Sakurai
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science, Kitasato University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Thomas Lisse
- MDI Biological Laboratory, Davis Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine, Bar Harbor, Maine, United States of America
| | - Kenji Imai
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tadao Serikawa
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tomoji Mashimo
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Coffman VC, Wu JQ. Every laboratory with a fluorescence microscope should consider counting molecules. Mol Biol Cell 2015; 25:1545-8. [PMID: 24825827 PMCID: PMC4019486 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e13-05-0249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein numbers in cells determine rates of biological processes, influence the architecture of cellular structures, reveal the stoichiometries of protein complexes, guide in vitro biochemical reconstitutions, and provide parameter values for mathematical modeling. The purpose of this essay is to increase awareness of methods for counting protein molecules using fluorescence microscopy and encourage more cell biologists to report these numbers. We address the state of the field in terms of utility and accuracy of the numbers reported and point readers to references for details of specific techniques and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie C Coffman
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Jian-Qiu Wu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
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36
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Kaneko T, Mashimo T. Creating knockout and knockin rodents using engineered endonucleases via direct embryo injection. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1239:307-315. [PMID: 25408415 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1862-1_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Genetically engineered rodents have been generated worldwide for biomedical research. Recently, gene targeting techniques have been developed by using engineered endonucleases such as zinc-finger nucleases (ZFN), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9. These endonucleases are useful for simple and rapid production of gene knockout/knockin animals without using embryonic stem (ES) cells. This chapter introduces the latest protocols for producing genetically modified rodents using ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR/Cas9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehito Kaneko
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan,
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37
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Abstract
Chemical communication plays an important role in the social lives of various mammalian species. Some of these chemicals are called pheromones. Rats release a specific odor into the air when stressed. This stress-related odor increases the anxiety levels of other rats; therefore, it is possible that the anxiety-causing molecules are present in the stress-related odorants. Here, we have tried to identify the responsible molecules by using the acoustic startle reflex as a bioassay system to detect anxiogenic activity. After successive fractionation of the stress-related odor, we detected 4-methylpentanal and hexanal in the final fraction that still possessed anxiogenic properties. Using synthetic molecules, we found that minute amounts of the binary mixture, but not either molecule separately, increased anxiety in rats. Furthermore, we determined that the mixture increased a specific type of anxiety and evoked anxiety-related behavioral responses in an experimental model that was different from the acoustic startle reflex. Analyses of neural mechanisms proposed that the neural circuit related to anxiety was only activated when the two molecules were simultaneously perceived by two olfactory systems. We concluded that the mixture is a pheromone that increases anxiety in rats. To our knowledge, this is the first study identifying a rat pheromone. Our results could aid further research on rat pheromones, which would enhance our understanding of chemical communication in mammals.
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38
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Irving AA, Yoshimi K, Hart ML, Parker T, Clipson L, Ford MR, Kuramoto T, Dove WF, Amos-Landgraf JM. The utility of Apc-mutant rats in modeling human colon cancer. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:1215-25. [PMID: 25288683 PMCID: PMC4213726 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.016980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior to the advent of genetic engineering in the mouse, the rat was the model of choice for investigating the etiology of cancer. Now, recent advances in the manipulation of the rat genome, combined with a growing recognition of the physiological differences between mice and rats, have reignited interest in the rat as a model of human cancer. Two recently developed rat models, the polyposis in the rat colon (Pirc) and Kyoto Apc Delta (KAD) strains, each carry mutations in the intestinal-cancer-associated adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) gene. In contrast to mouse models carrying Apc mutations, in which cancers develop mainly in the small intestine rather than in the colon and there is no gender bias, these rat models exhibit colonic predisposition and gender-specific susceptibility, as seen in human colon cancer. The rat also provides other experimental resources as a model organism that are not provided by the mouse: the structure of its chromosomes facilitates the analysis of genomic events, the size of its colon permits longitudinal analysis of tumor growth, and the size of biological samples from the animal facilitates multiplexed molecular analyses of the tumor and its host. Thus, the underlying biology and experimental resources of these rat models provide important avenues for investigation. We anticipate that advances in disease modeling in the rat will synergize with resources that are being developed in the mouse to provide a deeper understanding of human colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Irving
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Kazuto Yoshimi
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Marcia L Hart
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Taybor Parker
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Linda Clipson
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Madeline R Ford
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - Takashi Kuramoto
- Institute of Laboratory Animals, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - William F Dove
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA
| | - James M Amos-Landgraf
- McArdle Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Oncology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53792, USA. Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
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Abstract
CRISPR/Cas9 system of RNA-guided genome editing is revolutionizing genetics research in a wide spectrum of organisms. Even for the laboratory mouse, a model that has thrived under the benefits of embryonic stem (ES) cell knockout capabilities for nearly three decades, CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)/Cas9 technology enables one to manipulate the genome with unprecedented simplicity and speed. It allows generation of null, conditional, precisely mutated, reporter, or tagged alleles in mice. Moreover, it holds promise for other applications beyond genome editing. The crux of this system is the efficient and targeted introduction of DNA breaks that are repaired by any of several pathways in a predictable but not entirely controllable manner. Thus, further optimizations and improvements are being developed. Here, we summarize current applications and provide a practical guide to use the CRISPR/Cas9 system for mouse mutagenesis, based on published reports and our own experiences. We discuss critical points and suggest technical improvements to increase efficiency of RNA-guided genome editing in mouse embryos and address practical problems such as mosaicism in founders, which complicates genotyping and phenotyping. We describe a next-generation sequencing strategy for simultaneous characterization of on- and off-target editing in mice derived from multiple CRISPR experiments. Additionally, we report evidence that elevated frequency of precise, homology-directed editing can be achieved by transient inhibition of the Ligase IV-dependent nonhomologous end-joining pathway in one-celled mouse embryos.
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Sasaki H, Yoshida K, Hozumi A, Sasakura Y. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knockout in the ascidian Ciona intestinalis. Dev Growth Differ 2014; 56:499-510. [PMID: 25212715 PMCID: PMC4231237 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Knockout of genes with CRISPR/Cas9 is a newly emerged approach to investigate functions of genes in various organisms. We demonstrate that CRISPR/Cas9 can mutate endogenous genes of the ascidian Ciona intestinalis, a splendid model for elucidating molecular mechanisms for constructing the chordate body plan. Short guide RNA (sgRNA) and Cas9 mRNA, when they are expressed in Ciona embryos by means of microinjection or electroporation of their expression vectors, introduced mutations in the target genes. The specificity of target choice by sgRNA is relatively high compared to the reports from some other organisms, and a single nucleotide mutation at the sgRNA dramatically reduced mutation efficiency at the on-target site. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis will be a powerful method to study gene functions in Ciona along with another genome editing approach using TALE nucleases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruka Sasaki
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of TsukubaShimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Keita Yoshida
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of TsukubaShimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Akiko Hozumi
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of TsukubaShimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
| | - Yasunori Sasakura
- Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of TsukubaShimoda, Shizuoka, 415-0025, Japan
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41
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Janero DR. The future of drug discovery: enabling technologies for enhancing lead characterization and profiling therapeutic potential. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2014; 9:847-58. [PMID: 24965547 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2014.925876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Technology often serves as a handmaiden and catalyst of invention. The discovery of safe, effective medications depends critically upon experimental approaches capable of providing high-impact information on the biological effects of drug candidates early in the discovery pipeline. This information can enable reliable lead identification, pharmacological compound differentiation and successful translation of research output into clinically useful therapeutics. The shallow preclinical profiling of candidate compounds promulgates a minimalistic understanding of their biological effects and undermines the level of value creation necessary for finding quality leads worth moving forward within the development pipeline with efficiency and prognostic reliability sufficient to help remediate the current pharma-industry productivity drought. Three specific technologies discussed herein, in addition to experimental areas intimately associated with contemporary drug discovery, appear to hold particular promise for strengthening the preclinical valuation of drug candidates by deepening lead characterization. These are: i) hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry for characterizing structural and ligand-interaction dynamics of disease-relevant proteins; ii) activity-based chemoproteomics for profiling the functional diversity of mammalian proteomes; and iii) nuclease-mediated precision gene editing for developing more translatable cellular and in vivo models of human diseases. When applied in an informed manner congruent with the clinical understanding of disease processes, technologies such as these that span levels of biological organization can serve as valuable enablers of drug discovery and potentially contribute to reducing the current, unacceptably high rates of compound clinical failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Janero
- Northeastern University, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences Entrepreneurs , 360 Huntington Avenue, 116 Mugar Life Sciences Hall, Boston, MA 02115-5000 , USA +1 617 373 2208 ; +1 617 373 7493 ;
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