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Polyakova Z, Hatanaka N, Chiken S, Nambu A. Subthalamic Activity for Motor Execution and Cancelation in Monkeys. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e1911222024. [PMID: 38290848 PMCID: PMC10957207 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1911-22.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The subthalamic nucleus (STN) receives cortical inputs via the hyperdirect and indirect pathways, projects to the output nuclei of the basal ganglia, and plays a critical role in the control of voluntary movements and movement disorders. STN neurons change their activity during execution of movements, while recent studies emphasize STN activity specific to cancelation of movements. To address the relationship between execution and cancelation functions, we examined STN activity in two Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata, both sexes) who performed a goal-directed reaching task with a delay that included Go, Cancel, and NoGo trials. We first examined responses to the stimulation of the forelimb regions in the primary motor cortex and/or supplementary motor area. STN neurons with motor cortical inputs were found in the dorsal somatomotor region of the STN. All these STN neurons showed activity changes in Go trials, suggesting their involvement in execution of movements. Part of them exhibited activity changes in Cancel trials and sustained activity during delay periods, suggesting their involvement in cancelation of planed movements and preparation of movements, respectively. The STN neurons rarely showed activity changes in NoGo trials. Go- and Cancel-related activity was selective to the direction of movements, and the selectivity was higher in Cancel trials than in Go trials. Changes in Go- and Cancel-related activity occurred early enough to initiate and cancel movements, respectively. These results suggest that the dorsal somatomotor region of the STN, which receives motor cortical inputs, is involved in preparation and execution of movements and cancelation of planned movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zlata Polyakova
- Division of System Neurophysiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Center for Human Nature, Artificial Intelligence, and Neuroscience, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Hatanaka
- Division of System Neurophysiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | - Satomi Chiken
- Division of System Neurophysiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
| | - Atsushi Nambu
- Division of System Neurophysiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki 444-8585, Japan
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Hallquist MN, Hwang K, Luna B, Dombrovski AY. Reward-based option competition in human dorsal stream and transition from stochastic exploration to exploitation in continuous space. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadj2219. [PMID: 38394198 PMCID: PMC10889364 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj2219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Primates exploring and exploiting a continuous sensorimotor space rely on dynamic maps in the dorsal stream. Two complementary perspectives exist on how these maps encode rewards. Reinforcement learning models integrate rewards incrementally over time, efficiently resolving the exploration/exploitation dilemma. Working memory buffer models explain rapid plasticity of parietal maps but lack a plausible exploration/exploitation policy. The reinforcement learning model presented here unifies both accounts, enabling rapid, information-compressing map updates and efficient transition from exploration to exploitation. As predicted by our model, activity in human frontoparietal dorsal stream regions, but not in MT+, tracks the number of competing options, as preferred options are selectively maintained on the map, while spatiotemporally distant alternatives are compressed out. When valuable new options are uncovered, posterior β1/α oscillations desynchronize within 0.4 to 0.7 s, consistent with option encoding by competing β1-stabilized subpopulations. Together, outcomes matching locally cached reward representations rapidly update parietal maps, biasing choices toward often-sampled, rewarded options.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kai Hwang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Beatriz Luna
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Jatupornpoonsub T, Thimachai P, Supasyndh O, Wongsawat Y. QEEG characteristics associated with malnutrition-inflammation complex syndrome. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:944988. [PMID: 36825130 PMCID: PMC9941172 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.944988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
End-stage renal disease (ESRD) has been linked to cerebral complications due to the comorbidity of malnutrition and inflammation, which is referred to as malnutrition-inflammation complex syndrome (MICS). The severity of this condition is clinically assessed with the malnutrition-inflammation score (MIS), and a cutoff of five is used to optimally distinguish patients with and without MICS. However, this tool is still invasive and inconvenient, because it combines medical records, physical examination, and laboratory results. These steps require clinicians and limit MIS usage on a regular basis. Cerebral diseases in ESRD patients can be evaluated reliably and conveniently by using quantitative electroencephalogram (QEEG), which possibly reflects the severity of MICS likewise. Given the links between kidney and brain abnormalities, we hypothesized that some QEEG patterns might be associated with the severity of MICS and could be used to distinguish ESRD patients with and without MICS. Hence, we recruited 62 ESRD participants and divided them into two subgroups: ESRD with MICS (17 women (59%), age 60.31 ± 7.79 years, MIS < 5) and ESRD without MICS (20 women (61%), age 62.03 ± 9.29 years, MIS ≥ 5). These participants willingly participated in MIS and QEEG assessments. We found that MICS-related factors may alter QEEG characteristics, including the absolute power of the delta, theta, and beta 1 bands, the relative power of the theta and beta 3 subbands, the coherence of the delta and theta bands, and the amplitude asymmetry of the beta 1 band, in certain brain regions. Although most of these QEEG patterns are significantly correlated with MIS, the delta absolute power, beta 1 amplitude asymmetry, and theta coherence are the optimal inputs for the logistic regression model, which can accurately classify ESRD patients with and without MICS (90.0 ± 5.7% area under the receiver operating characteristic curve). We suggest that these QEEG features can be used not only to evaluate the severity of cerebral disorders in ESRD patients but also to noninvasively monitor MICS in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tirapoot Jatupornpoonsub
- Brain-Computer Interface Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
| | - Paramat Thimachai
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Phramongkutklao Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Ouppatham Supasyndh
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Phramongkutklao Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yodchanan Wongsawat
- Brain-Computer Interface Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand,*Correspondence: Yodchanan Wongsawat ✉
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Rayson H, Debnath R, Alavizadeh S, Fox N, Ferrari PF, Bonaiuto JJ. Detection and Analysis of Cortical Beta Bursts in Developmental EEG Data. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2022; 54:101069. [PMID: 35114447 PMCID: PMC8816670 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental EEG research often involves analyzing signals within various frequency bands, based on the assumption that these signals represent oscillatory neural activity. However, growing evidence suggests that certain frequency bands are dominated by transient burst events in single trials rather than sustained oscillations. This is especially true for the beta band, with adult ‘beta burst’ timing a better predictor of motor behavior than slow changes in average beta amplitude. No developmental research thus far has looked at beta bursts, with techniques used to investigate frequency-specific activity structure rarely even applied to such data. Therefore, we aimed to: i) provide a tutorial for developmental EEG researchers on the application of methods for evaluating the rhythmic versus transient nature of frequency-specific activity; and ii) use these techniques to investigate the existence of sensorimotor beta bursts in infants. We found that beta activity in 12-month-olds did occur in bursts, however differences were also revealed in terms of duration, amplitude, and rate during grasping compared to adults. Application of the techniques illustrated here will be critical for clarifying the functional roles of frequency-specific activity across early development, including the role of beta activity in motor processing and its contribution to differing developmental motor trajectories. Transient bursts rather than oscillations dominate sensorimotor beta activity Lagged coherence indicates the rhythmicity of a signal The p-episode method can be used to identify beta bursts in developmental EEG data Infant sensorimotor beta has a lower peak frequency than adults and consists of longer duration, higher amplitude bursts
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Rayson
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS UMR5229, Bron, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, France.
| | | | - Sanaz Alavizadeh
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS UMR5229, Bron, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, France
| | - Nathan Fox
- University of Maryland College Park, MD, USA
| | - Pier F Ferrari
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS UMR5229, Bron, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, France
| | - James J Bonaiuto
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, CNRS UMR5229, Bron, France; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, France
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Hervault M, Zanone PG, Buisson JC, Huys R. Cortical sensorimotor activity in the execution and suppression of discrete and rhythmic movements. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22364. [PMID: 34785710 PMCID: PMC8595306 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01368-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the engagement of sensorimotor cortices in movement is well documented, the functional relevance of brain activity patterns remains ambiguous. Especially, the cortical engagement specific to the pre-, within-, and post-movement periods is poorly understood. The present study addressed this issue by examining sensorimotor EEG activity during the performance as well as STOP-signal cued suppression of movements pertaining to two distinct classes, namely, discrete vs. ongoing rhythmic movements. Our findings indicate that the lateralized readiness potential (LRP), which is classically used as a marker of pre-movement processing, indexes multiple pre- and in- movement-related brain dynamics in a movement-class dependent fashion. In- and post-movement event-related (de)synchronization (ERD/ERS) observed in the Mu (8-13 Hz) and Beta (15-30 Hz) frequency ranges were associated with estimated brain sources in both motor and somatosensory cortical areas. Notwithstanding, Beta ERS occurred earlier following cancelled than actually performed movements. In contrast, Mu power did not vary. Whereas Beta power may reflect the evaluation of the sensory predicted outcome, Mu power might engage in linking perception to action. Additionally, the rhythmic movement forced stop (only) showed a post-movement Mu/Beta rebound, which might reflect an active "clearing-out" of the motor plan and its feedback-based online control. Overall, the present study supports the notion that sensorimotor EEG modulations are key markers to investigate control or executive processes, here initiation and inhibition, which are exerted when performing distinct movement classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Hervault
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau et Cognition, UMR 5549, Pavillon Baudot CHU Purpan, CNRS - Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
| | - Pier-Giorgio Zanone
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau et Cognition, UMR 5549, Pavillon Baudot CHU Purpan, CNRS - Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Buisson
- Institut de Recherche en Informatique de Toulouse - UMR 5505, CNRS - Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Raoul Huys
- Centre de Recherche Cerveau et Cognition, UMR 5549, Pavillon Baudot CHU Purpan, CNRS - Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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Gonzalez-Escamilla G, Muthuraman M, Ciolac D, Coenen VA, Schnitzler A, Groppa S. Neuroimaging and electrophysiology meet invasive neurostimulation for causal interrogations and modulations of brain states. Neuroimage 2020; 220:117144. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Scholten M, Schoellmann A, Ramos-Murguialday A, López-Larraz E, Gharabaghi A, Weiss D. Transitions between repetitive tapping and upper limb freezing show impaired movement-related beta band modulation. Clin Neurophysiol 2020; 131:2499-2507. [PMID: 32684329 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2020.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Freezing phenomena in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) constitute an important unaddressed therapeutic need. Changes in cortical neurophysiological signatures may precede a single freezing episode and indicate the evolution of abnormal motor network processes. Here, we hypothesize that the movement-related power modulation in the beta-band observed during regular finger tapping, deteriorates in the transition period before upper limb freezing (ULF). METHODS We analyzed a 36-channel EEG of 13 patients with PD during self-paced repetitive tapping of the right index finger. In offline analysis, we compared the transition period immediately before ULF ('transition') with regular tapping regarding movement-related power modulation and interregional phase synchronization. RESULTS From time-frequency analyses, we observed that the tap cycle related beta-band power modulation over the left sensorimotor area was diminished in the transition period before ULF. Furthermore, increased beta-band power was observed in the transition period compared to regular tapping centered over the left centro-parietal and right frontal areas. Phase synchronization between the left fronto-parietal areas and the left sensorimotor area was elevated during transition compared to regular tapping. CONCLUSION Together, these results indicate that diminished beta band power modulation and increased phase synchronization precede ULF. SIGNIFICANCE We demonstrate that pathological cortical motor processing is present in the transition phase from regular tapping to an ULF episode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlieke Scholten
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research (HIH), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; German Centre of Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.
| | - Anna Schoellmann
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research (HIH), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; German Centre of Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Ander Ramos-Murguialday
- Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioural Neurobiology, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; TECNALIA, Health Division, Neurotechnology Laboratory, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Eduardo López-Larraz
- Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioural Neurobiology, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Alireza Gharabaghi
- Division of Functional and Restorative Neurosurgery, Center for Integrative Neuroscience, and Tuebingen NeuroCampus, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Weiss
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research (HIH), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; German Centre of Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.
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Marmor O, Rappel P, Valsky D, Bick AS, Arkadir D, Linetsky E, Peled O, Tamir I, Bergman H, Israel Z, Eitan R. Movement context modulates neuronal activity in motor and limbic-associative domains of the human parkinsonian subthalamic nucleus. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 136:104716. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Novembre G, Pawar VM, Kilintari M, Bufacchi RJ, Guo Y, Rothwell JC, Iannetti GD. The effect of salient stimuli on neural oscillations, isometric force, and their coupling. Neuroimage 2019; 198:221-230. [PMID: 31085301 PMCID: PMC6610333 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Survival in a suddenly-changing environment requires animals not only to detect salient stimuli, but also to promptly respond to them by initiating or revising ongoing motor processes. We recently discovered that the large vertex brain potentials elicited by sudden supramodal stimuli are strongly coupled with a multiphasic modulation of isometric force, a phenomenon that we named cortico-muscular resonance (CMR). Here, we extend our investigation of the CMR to the time-frequency domain. We show that (i) both somatosensory and auditory stimuli evoke a number of phase-locked and non-phase-locked modulations of EEG spectral power. Remarkably, (ii) some of these phase-locked and non-phase-locked modulations are also present in the Force spectral power. Finally, (iii) EEG and Force time-frequency responses are correlated in two distinct regions of the power spectrum. An early, low-frequency region (∼4 Hz) reflects the previously-described coupling between the phase-locked EEG vertex potential and force modulations. A late, higher-frequency region (beta-band, ∼20 Hz) reflects a second coupling between the non-phase-locked increase of power observed in both EEG and Force. In both time-frequency regions, coupling was maximal over the sensorimotor cortex contralateral to the hand exerting the force, suggesting an effect of the stimuli on the tonic corticospinal drive. Thus, stimulus-induced CMR occurs across at least two different types of cortical activities, whose functional significance in relation to the motor system should be investigated further. We propose that these different types of corticomuscular coupling are important to alter motor behaviour in response to salient environmental events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Novembre
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London (UCL), UK; Neuroscience and Behaviour Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Rome, Italy.
| | - Vijay M Pawar
- Department of Computer Science, University College London (UCL), UK
| | - Marina Kilintari
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London (UCL), UK
| | - Rory J Bufacchi
- Neuroscience and Behaviour Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Rome, Italy
| | - Yifei Guo
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London (UCL), UK; Neuroscience and Behaviour Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Rome, Italy
| | | | - Gian Domenico Iannetti
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London (UCL), UK; Neuroscience and Behaviour Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Rome, Italy
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Alayrangues J, Torrecillos F, Jahani A, Malfait N. Error-related modulations of the sensorimotor post-movement and foreperiod beta-band activities arise from distinct neural substrates and do not reflect efferent signal processing. Neuroimage 2018; 184:10-24. [PMID: 30201465 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
While beta activity has been extensively studied in relation to voluntary movement, its role in sensorimotor adaptation remains largely uncertain. Recently, it has been shown that the post-movement beta rebound as well as beta activity during movement-preparation are modulated by movement errors. However, there are critical functional differences between pre- and post-movement beta activities. Here, we addressed two related open questions. Do the pre- and post-movement error-related modulations arise from distinct neural substrates? Do these modulations relate to efferent signals shaping muscle-activation patterns or do they reflect integration of sensory information, intervening upstream of the motor output? For this purpose, first we exploited independent component analysis (ICA) which revealed a double dissociation suggesting that distinct neural substrates are recruited in error-related beta-power modulations observed before and after movement. Second, we compared error-related beta oscillation responses observed in two bimanual reaching tasks involving similar movements but different interlimb coordination, and in which the same mechanical perturbations induced different behavioral adaptive responses. While the task difference was not reflected in the post-movement beta rebound, the pre-movement beta activity was differently modulated according to the interlimb coordination. Critically, we show an uncoupling between the behavioral and the electrophysiological responses during the movement preparation phase, which demonstrates that the error-related modulation of the foreperiod beta activity does not reflect changes in the motor output from primary motor cortex. It seems instead to relate to higher level processing of sensory afferents, essential for sensorimotor adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Alayrangues
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR7289, Aix-Marseille Université/CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Flavie Torrecillos
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Amirhossein Jahani
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR7289, Aix-Marseille Université/CNRS, Marseille, France
| | - Nicole Malfait
- Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone, UMR7289, Aix-Marseille Université/CNRS, Marseille, France.
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Modulation of Beta Bursts in the Subthalamic Nucleus Predicts Motor Performance. J Neurosci 2018; 38:8905-8917. [PMID: 30181135 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1314-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Revised: 07/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Considerable evidence suggests a role of beta-band oscillations in voluntary movements. However, most of the studies linking beta power to motor performance are based on data averaged across trials that ignore the fast dynamics of oscillatory activity and trial-to-trial variations in motor responses. Recently, emphasis has shifted from the functional implications of the mean beta power to the presence and nature of episodic bursts of beta activity. Here we test the hypothesis that beta bursts, though short in duration in more physiological state, may help explain spontaneous variations in motor behavior of human adults at the single-trial level. To this end, we recorded local field potential activity from the subthalamic nucleus of parkinsonian patients of both genders whose motor behavior had been normalized as far as possible through treatment with the dopamine prodrug, levodopa. We found that beta bursts present in a time-limited window well before movement onset in the contralateral subthalamic nucleus reduce the peak velocity of that movement and that this effect is further amplified by the amplitude of the burst. Additionally, prolonged reaction times are observed when bursts occur immediately after the GO cue. Together, these results suggest that the modulation of the timing and amplitude of beta bursts might serve to dynamically adapt motor performance. These results offer new insight in the pathology of Parkinson's disease, and suggest that beta bursts whose presence and nature are modulated by context may have a physiological role in modulating behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Beta oscillations (∼13-30 Hz) have been increasingly interpreted as transient bursts rather than as rhythmically sustained oscillations (Feingold et al., 2015). Prolonged and increased probability of beta bursts in the subthalamic nucleus correlates with the severity of motor impairment in Parkinson's disease (Tinkhauser et al., 2017a, b). However, it remains unclear whether beta bursts act to modify motor performance on a trial-by-trial basis under more physiological condition. Here, we found that, according to the time window in which they fall, beta bursts reduced the velocity of the forthcoming movement or prolonged the reaction time. These results offer new insight in the pathology of Parkinson's disease and also suggest that the modulation of beta bursts might serve to dynamically adapt motor performance.
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Castro-Meneses LJ, Sowman PF. Stop signals delay synchrony more for finger tapping than vocalization: a dual modality study of rhythmic synchronization in the stop signal task. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5242. [PMID: 30013856 PMCID: PMC6046193 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A robust feature of sensorimotor synchronization (SMS) performance in finger tapping to an auditory pacing signal is the negative asynchrony of the tap with respect to the pacing signal. The Paillard-Fraisse hypothesis suggests that negative asynchrony is a result of inter-modal integration, in which the brain compares sensory information across two modalities (auditory and tactile). The current study compared the asynchronies of vocalizations and finger tapping in time to an auditory pacing signal. Our first hypothesis was that vocalizations have less negative asynchrony compared to finger tapping due to the requirement for sensory integration within only a single (auditory) modality (intra-modal integration). However, due to the different measurements for vocalizations and finger responses, interpreting the comparison between these two response modalities is problematic. To address this problem, we included stop signals in the synchronization task. The rationale for this manipulation was that stop signals would perturb synchronization more in the inter-modal compared to the intra-modal task. We hypothesized that the inclusion of stop signals induce proactive inhibition, which reduces negative asynchrony. We further hypothesized that any reduction in negative asynchrony occurs to a lesser degree for vocalization than for finger tapping. METHOD A total of 30 participants took part in this study. We compared SMS in a single sensory modality (vocalizations (or auditory) to auditory pacing signal) to a dual sensory modality (fingers (or tactile) to auditory pacing signal). The task was combined with a stop signal task in which stop signals were relevant in some blocks and irrelevant in others. Response-to-pacing signal asynchronies and stop signal reaction times were compared across modalities and across the two types of stop signal blocks. RESULTS In the blocks where stopping was irrelevant, we found that vocalization (-61.47 ms) was more synchronous with the auditory pacing signal compared to finger tapping (-128.29 ms). In the blocks where stopping was relevant, stop signals induced proactive inhibition, shifting the response times later. However, proactive inhibition (26.11 ms) was less evident for vocalizations compared to finger tapping (58.06 ms). DISCUSSION These results support the interpretation that relatively large negative asynchrony in finger tapping is a consequence of inter-modal integration, whereas smaller asynchrony is associated with intra-modal integration. This study also supports the interpretation that intra-modal integration is more sensitive to synchronization discrepancies compared to inter-modal integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leidy J. Castro-Meneses
- Perception in Action Research Centre (PARC), Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders (CCD), Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
- The MARCS Institute for Brain, Behaviour and Development, University of Western Sydney, Bankstown, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul F. Sowman
- Perception in Action Research Centre (PARC), Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders (CCD), Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, Australia
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Alternating Modulation of Subthalamic Nucleus Beta Oscillations during Stepping. J Neurosci 2018; 38:5111-5121. [PMID: 29760182 PMCID: PMC5977446 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3596-17.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Gait disturbances in Parkinson's disease are commonly refractory to current treatment options and majorly impair patient's quality of life. Auditory cues facilitate gait and prevent motor blocks. We investigated how neural dynamics in the human subthalamic nucleus of Parkinsons's disease patients (14 male, 2 female) vary during stepping and whether rhythmic auditory cues enhance the observed modulation. Oscillations in the beta band were suppressed after ipsilateral heel strikes, when the contralateral foot had to be raised, and reappeared after contralateral heel strikes, when the contralateral foot rested on the floor. The timing of this 20–30 Hz beta modulation was clearly distinct between the left and right subthalamic nucleus, and was alternating within each stepping cycle. This modulation was similar, whether stepping movements were made while sitting, standing, or during gait, confirming the utility of the stepping in place paradigm. During stepping in place, beta modulation increased with auditory cues that assisted patients in timing their steps more regularly. Our results suggest a link between the degree of power modulation within high beta frequency bands and stepping performance. These findings raise the possibility that alternating deep brain stimulation patterns may be superior to constant stimulation for improving parkinsonian gait. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Gait disturbances in Parkinson's disease majorly reduce patients' quality of life and are often refractory to current treatment options. We investigated how neural activity in the subthalamic nucleus of patients who received deep brain stimulation surgery covaries with the stepping cycle. 20–30 Hz beta activity was modulated relative to each step, alternating between the left and right STN. The stepping performance of patients improved when auditory cues were provided, which went along with enhanced beta modulation. This raises the possibility that alternating stimulation patterns may also enhance beta modulation and may be more beneficial for gait control than continuous stimulation, which needs to be tested in future studies.
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Nayak T, Zhang T, Mao Z, Xu X, Zhang L, Pack DJ, Dong B, Huang Y. Prediction of Human Performance Using Electroencephalography under Different Indoor Room Temperatures. Brain Sci 2018; 8:brainsci8040074. [PMID: 29690601 PMCID: PMC5924410 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8040074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Varying indoor environmental conditions is known to affect office worker’s performance; wherein past research studies have reported the effects of unfavorable indoor temperature and air quality causing sick building syndrome (SBS) among office workers. Thus, investigating factors that can predict performance in changing indoor environments have become a highly important research topic bearing significant impact in our society. While past research studies have attempted to determine predictors for performance, they do not provide satisfactory prediction ability. Therefore, in this preliminary study, we attempt to predict performance during office-work tasks triggered by different indoor room temperatures (22.2 °C and 30 °C) from human brain signals recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). Seven participants were recruited, from whom EEG, skin temperature, heart rate and thermal survey questionnaires were collected. Regression analyses were carried out to investigate the effectiveness of using EEG power spectral densities (PSD) as predictors of performance. Our results indicate EEG PSDs as predictors provide the highest R² (> 0.70), that is 17 times higher than using other physiological signals as predictors and is more robust. Finally, the paper provides insight on the selected predictors based on brain activity patterns for low- and high-performance levels under different indoor-temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapsya Nayak
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
| | - Tinghe Zhang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
| | - Zijing Mao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
| | - Xiaojing Xu
- NSF-DOE CURRENT Center, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Lin Zhang
- SIEE, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China.
| | - Daniel J Pack
- College of Engineering & Computer Science, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA.
| | - Bing Dong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
| | - Yufei Huang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
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15
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Bravi R, Cohen EJ, Martinelli A, Gottard A, Minciacchi D. When Non-Dominant Is Better than Dominant: Kinesiotape Modulates Asymmetries in Timed Performance during a Synchronization-Continuation Task. Front Integr Neurosci 2017; 11:21. [PMID: 28943842 PMCID: PMC5596084 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2017.00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing consensus regarding the specialization of the non-dominant limb (NDL)/hemisphere system to employ proprioceptive feedback when executing motor actions. In a wide variety of rhythmic tasks the dominant limb (DL) has advantages in speed and timing consistency over the NDL. Recently, we demonstrated that the application of Kinesio® Tex (KT) tape, an elastic therapeutic device used for treating athletic injuries, improves significantly the timing consistency of isochronous wrist’s flexion-extensions (IWFEs) of the DL. We argued that the augmented precision of IWFEs is determined by a more efficient motor control during movements due to the extra-proprioceptive effect provided by KT. In this study, we tested the effect of KT on timing precision of IWFEs performed with the DL and the NDL, and we evaluated the efficacy of KT to counteract possible timing precision difference between limbs. Young healthy subjects performed with and without KT (NKT) a synchronization-continuation task in which they first entrained IWFEs to paced auditory stimuli (synchronization phase), and subsequently continued to produce motor responses with the same temporal interval in the absence of the auditory stimulus (continuation phase). Two inter-onset intervals (IOIs) of 550-ms and 800-ms, one within and the other beyond the boundaries of the spontaneous motor tempo, were tested. Kinematics was recorded and temporal parameters were extracted and analyzed. Our results show that limb advantages in performing proficiently rhythmic movements are not side-locked but depend also on speed of movement. The application of KT significantly reduces the timing variability of IWFEs performed at 550-ms IOI. KT not only cancels the disadvantages of the NDL but also makes it even more precise than the DL without KT. The superior sensitivity of the NDL to use the extra-sensory information provided by KT is attributed to a greater competence of the NDL/hemisphere system to rely on sensory input. The findings in this study add a new piece of information to the context of motor timing literature. The performance asymmetries here demonstrated as preferred temporal environments could reflect limb differences in the choice of sensorimotor control strategies for the production of human movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Bravi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
| | - Erez J Cohen
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
| | - Alessio Martinelli
- Department of Information Engineering, University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
| | - Anna Gottard
- Department of Statistics, Informatics, Applications, University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
| | - Diego Minciacchi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
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16
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Fischer P, Pogosyan A, Herz DM, Cheeran B, Green AL, Fitzgerald J, Aziz TZ, Hyam J, Little S, Foltynie T, Limousin P, Zrinzo L, Brown P, Tan H. Subthalamic nucleus gamma activity increases not only during movement but also during movement inhibition. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28742498 PMCID: PMC5526662 DOI: 10.7554/elife.23947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gamma activity in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is widely viewed as a pro-kinetic rhythm. Here we test the hypothesis that rather than being specifically linked to movement execution, gamma activity reflects dynamic processing in this nucleus. We investigated the role of gamma during fast stopping and recorded scalp electroencephalogram and local field potentials from deep brain stimulation electrodes in 9 Parkinson’s disease patients. Patients interrupted finger tapping (paced by a metronome) in response to a stop-signal sound, which was timed such that successful stopping would occur only in ~50% of all trials. STN gamma (60–90 Hz) increased most strongly when the tap was successfully stopped, whereas phase-based connectivity between the contralateral STN and motor cortex decreased. Beta or theta power seemed less directly related to stopping. In summary, STN gamma activity may support flexible motor control as it did not only increase during movement execution but also during rapid action-stopping. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23947.001 Being able to stop walking to allow a car to pass is one example of how terminating a movement midway through can be essential for surviving in an ever-changing world. However, people with Parkinson’s disease sometimes struggle to stop performing a repetitive movement. Also, they may find themselves stopping despite having intended to keep moving. This inability to control stopping and starting can play havoc with everyday activities such as walking. Some people with Parkinson’s disease find that their symptoms improve after a treatment called deep brain stimulation. Surgeons lower electrodes into specific regions of the brain and use them to block the abnormal electrical activity that causes problems with movement. One of the main brain regions targeted is an area called the subthalamic nucleus. Whenever people initiate a movement, nerve cells in the subthalamic nucleus start to become activated at the same time. This synchronization generates rhythmic waves of activity in the subthalamic nucleus, which are called gamma waves. To find out whether gamma waves are also involved in stopping a movement, Fischer et al. measured activity in the subthalamic nucleus of nine patients with Parkinson’s disease as they performed a finger tapping exercise. The patients had to tap their finger in time with a metronome, but refrain from tapping whenever they heard a high pitched noise. As expected, a burst of gamma waves accompanied the start of each finger tap. However, Fischer et al. showed that an increase in gamma waves also occurred whenever patients successfully stopped a finger tap midway. Gamma waves may thus help people to interact flexibly with the world around them. Techniques like deep brain stimulation have the potential to manipulate gamma waves. In order to treat symptoms without causing side effects, we need to work out how to target brain waves that are altered in patients, without disrupting other processes. A key step towards achieving this is to understand how brain waves change during essential behaviours such as stopping an on-going movement. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23947.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Fischer
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alek Pogosyan
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Damian M Herz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Binith Cheeran
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander L Green
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James Fitzgerald
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tipu Z Aziz
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Hyam
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Little
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ludvic Zrinzo
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Brown
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Huiling Tan
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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17
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Herz DM, Tan H, Brittain JS, Fischer P, Cheeran B, Green AL, FitzGerald J, Aziz TZ, Ashkan K, Little S, Foltynie T, Limousin P, Zrinzo L, Bogacz R, Brown P. Distinct mechanisms mediate speed-accuracy adjustments in cortico-subthalamic networks. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28137358 PMCID: PMC5287713 DOI: 10.7554/elife.21481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Optimal decision-making requires balancing fast but error-prone and more accurate but slower decisions through adjustments of decision thresholds. Here, we demonstrate two distinct correlates of such speed-accuracy adjustments by recording subthalamic nucleus (STN) activity and electroencephalography in 11 Parkinson’s disease patients during a perceptual decision-making task; STN low-frequency oscillatory (LFO) activity (2–8 Hz), coupled to activity at prefrontal electrode Fz, and STN beta activity (13–30 Hz) coupled to electrodes C3/C4 close to motor cortex. These two correlates differed not only in their cortical topography and spectral characteristics but also in the relative timing of recruitment and in their precise relationship with decision thresholds. Increases of STN LFO power preceding the response predicted increased thresholds only after accuracy instructions, while cue-induced reductions of STN beta power decreased thresholds irrespective of instructions. These findings indicate that distinct neural mechanisms determine whether a decision will be made in haste or with caution. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21481.001 In everyday decisions, we have to balance how quickly we need to make a decision with how accurate we want our decision to be. For example, if you plan your next holiday you might want to make sure that you pick the best destination without caring too much about the time it takes to arrive at that decision. On the other hand, in your lunch break you might want to quickly choose between the different meals on the menu to make sure you are back at work on time, even though you might overlook a dish that you would have preferred. This effect – that decisions we make in haste are more likely to be suboptimal than slower, more deliberate decisions – is known as the speed-accuracy trade-off. One theory suggests that the activity of a brain area termed the subthalamic nucleus reflects whether people will prioritize speed or accuracy during decision-making. This area is seated deep inside the brain, meaning that it is normally difficult to record its activity. Herz et al. have now recorded the activity of the subthalamic nucleus in individuals with Parkinson’s disease who underwent brain surgery as part of their treatment. When these individuals switched between fast and cautious decision-making, the activity in the subthalamic nucleus changed, as did its relationship with the activity seen in other brain areas. Furthermore, these activity changes predicted how much information participants acquired before committing to a choice. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus is now a standard treatment for Parkinson’s disease. It will be important to assess whether this treatment affects the changes in subthalamic activity that are related to decision-making, and whether this affects whether an individual is more likely to make fast or accurate decisions. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21481.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian M Herz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Huiling Tan
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John-Stuart Brittain
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Petra Fischer
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Binith Cheeran
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander L Green
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James FitzGerald
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tipu Z Aziz
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keyoumars Ashkan
- Department of Neurosurgery, King's College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Little
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Foltynie
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia Limousin
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ludvic Zrinzo
- Unit of Functional Neurosurgery, Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rafal Bogacz
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Brown
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit at the University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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