Functional and evolutionary consequences of cranial fenestration in birds

Evolution of the temporal skull openings in land vertebrates: A hypothetical framework on the basis of biomechanics

The complex constructions of land vertebrate skulls have inspired a number of functional analyses. In the present study, we provide a basic view on skull biomechanics and offer a framework for more general observations using advanced modeling approaches in the future. We concentrate our discussion on the cranial openings in the temporal skull region and work out two major, feeding-related factors that largely influence the shape of the skull. We argue that (1) the place where the most forceful biting is conducted and (2) the handling of resisting food (sideward movements) constitute the formation and shaping of either one or two temporal arcades surrounding these openings. Diversity in temporal skull anatomy among amniotes can be explained by specific modulations of these factors with different amounts of acting forces which inevitably lead to deposition or reduction of bone material. For example, forceful anterior bite favors an infratemporal bar, whereas forceful posterior bite favors formation of an upper temporal arcade. Transverse forces (inertia and resistance of seized objects) as well as neck posture also influence the shaping of the temporal region. Considering their individual skull morphotypes, we finally provide hypotheses on the feeding adaptation in a variety of major tetrapod groups. We did not consider ligaments, internal bone structure, or cranial kinesis in our considerations. Involving those in quantitative tests of our hypotheses, such as finite element system synthesis, will provide a comprehensive picture on cranial mechanics and evolution in the future.

Insight into the evolutionary assemblage of cranial kinesis from a Cretaceous bird

The independent movements and flexibility of various parts of the skull, called cranial kinesis, are an evolutionary innovation that is found in living vertebrates only in some squamates and crown birds and is considered to be a major factor underpinning much of the enormous phenotypic and ecological diversity of living birds, the most diverse group of extant amniotes. Compared to the postcranium, our understanding of the evolutionary assemblage of the characteristic modern bird skull has been hampered by sparse fossil records of early cranial materials, with competing hypotheses regarding the evolutionary development of cranial kinesis among early members of the avialans. Here, a detailed three-dimensional reconstruction of the skull of the Early Cretaceous enantiornithine Yuanchuavis kompsosoura allows for its in-depth description, including elements that are poorly known among early-diverging avialans but are central to deciphering the mosaic assembly of features required for modern avian cranial kinesis. Our reconstruction of the skull shows evolutionary and functional conservation of the temporal and palatal regions by retaining the ancestral theropod dinosaurian configuration within the skull of this otherwise derived and volant bird. Geometric morphometric analysis of the palatine suggests that loss of the jugal process represents the first step in the structural modifications of this element leading to the kinetic crown bird condition. The mixture of plesiomorphic temporal and palatal structures together with a derived avialan rostrum and postcranial skeleton encapsulated in Yuanchuavis manifests the key role of evolutionary mosaicism and experimentation in early bird diversification.

Evolution of the vomer and its implications for cranial kinesis in Paraves

Most living birds exhibit cranial kinesis-movement between the rostrum and braincase-in which force is transferred through the palatal and jugal bars. The palate alone distinguishes the Paleognathae from the Neognathae, with cranial kinesis more developed in neognaths. Most previous palatal studies were based on 2D data and rarely incorporated data from stem birds despite great interest in their kinetic abilities. Here we reconstruct the vomer of the Early Cretaceous stem bird Sapeornis and the troodontid Sinovenator, taxa spanning the dinosaur-bird transition. A 3D shape analysis including these paravians and an extensive sampling of neornithines reveals their strong similarity to paleognaths and indicates that morphological differences in the vomer between paleognaths and neognaths are intimately related to their different kinetic abilities. These results suggest the skull of Mesozoic paravians lacked the kinetic abilities observed in neognaths, a conclusion also supported by our identification of an ectopterygoid in Sapeornis here. We conclude that cranial kinesis evolved relatively late, likely an innovation of the Neognathae, and is linked to the transformation of the vomer. This transformation increased palatal mobility, enabling the evolution of a diversity of kinetic mechanisms and ultimately contributing to the extraordinary evolutionary success of this clade.

Digital dissection of the head of the rock dove (Columba livia) using contrast-enhanced computed tomography

The rock dove (or common pigeon), Columba livia, is an important model organism in biological studies, including research focusing on head muscle anatomy, feeding kinematics, and cranial kinesis. However, no integrated computer-based biomechanical model of the pigeon head has yet been attempted. As an initial step towards achieving this goal, we present the first three-dimensional digital dissection of the pigeon head based on a contrast-enhanced computed tomographic dataset achieved using iodine potassium iodide as a staining agent. Our datasets enable us to visualize the skeletal and muscular anatomy, brain and cranial nerves, and major sense organs of the pigeon, including very small and fragile features, as well as maintaining the three-dimensional topology of anatomical structures. This work updates and supplements earlier anatomical work on this widely used laboratory organism. We resolve several key points of disagreement arising from previous descriptions of pigeon anatomy, including the precise arrangement of the external adductor muscles and their relationship to the posterior adductor. Examination of the eye muscles highlights differences between avian taxa and shows that pigeon eye muscles are more similar to those of a tinamou than they are to those of a house sparrow. Furthermore, we present our three-dimensional data as publicly accessible files for further research and education purposes. Digital dissection permits exceptional visualisation and will be a valuable resource for further investigations into the head anatomy of other bird species, as well as efforts to reconstruct soft tissues in fossil archosaurs.

Predicting calvarial growth in normal and craniosynostotic mice using a computational approach

During postnatal calvarial growth the brain grows gradually and the overlying bones and sutures accommodate that growth until the later juvenile stages. The whole process is coordinated through a complex series of biological, chemical and perhaps mechanical signals between various elements of the craniofacial system. The aim of this study was to investigate to what extent a computational model can accurately predict the calvarial growth in wild-type (WT) and mutant type (MT) Fgfr2C342Y/+ mice displaying bicoronal suture fusion. A series of morphological studies were carried out to quantify the calvarial growth at P3, P10 and P20 in both mouse types. MicroCT images of a P3 specimen were used to develop a finite element model of skull growth to predict the calvarial shape of WT and MT mice at P10. Sensitivity tests were performed and the results compared with ex vivo P10 data. Although the models were sensitive to the choice of input parameters, they predicted the overall skull growth in the WT and MT mice. The models also captured the difference between the ex vivoWT and MT mice. This modelling approach has the potential to be translated to human skull growth and to enhance our understanding of the different reconstruction methods used to manage clinically the different forms of craniosynostosis, and in the long term possibly reduce the number of re-operations in children displaying this condition and thereby enhance their quality of life.