Antagonistic pleiotropy for carbon use is rare in new mutations

Mutational Signatures in Wild Type Escherichia coli Strains Reveal Predominance of DNA Polymerase Errors

While mutational processes operating in the Escherichia coli genome have been revealed by multiple laboratory experiments, the contribution of these processes to accumulation of bacterial polymorphism and evolution in natural environments is unknown. To address this question, we reconstruct signatures of distinct mutational processes from experimental data on E. coli hypermutators, and ask how these processes contribute to differences between naturally occurring E. coli strains. We show that both mutations accumulated in the course of evolution of wild-type strains in nature and in the lab-grown nonmutator laboratory strains are explained predominantly by the low fidelity of DNA polymerases II and III. By contrast, contributions specific to disruption of DNA repair systems cannot be detected, suggesting that temporary accelerations of mutagenesis associated with such disruptions are unimportant for within-species evolution. These observations demonstrate that accumulation of diversity in bacterial strains in nature is predominantly associated with errors of DNA polymerases.

Rapid evolution of pre-zygotic reproductive barriers in allopatric populations

IMPORTANCE

A population diversifies into two or more species-such a process is known as speciation. In sexually reproducing microorganisms, which barriers arise first-pre-mating or post-mating? In this work, we quantify the relative strengths of these barriers and demonstrate that pre-mating barriers arise first in allopatrically evolving populations of yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These defects arise because of the altered kinetics of mating of the participating groups. Thus, our work provides an understanding of how adaptive changes can lead to diversification among microbial populations.

Revisiting the Role of Genetic Variation in Adaptation

AbstractEvolutionary biologists have thought about the role of genetic variation during adaptation for a very long time-before we understood the organization of the genetic code, the provenance of genetic variation, and how such variation influenced the phenotypes on which natural selection acts. Half a century after the discovery of the structure of DNA and the unraveling of the genetic code, we have a rich understanding of these problems and the means to both delve deeper and widen our perspective across organisms and natural populations. The 2022 Vice Presidential Symposium of the American Society of Naturalists highlighted examples of recent insights into the role of genetic variation in adaptive processes, which are compiled in this special section. The work was conducted in different parts of the world, included theoretical and empirical studies with diverse organisms, and addressed distinct aspects of how genetic variation influences adaptation. In our introductory article to the special section, we discuss some important recent insights about the generation and maintenance of genetic variation, its impacts on phenotype and fitness, its fate in natural populations, and its role in driving adaptation. By placing the special section articles in the broader context of recent developments, we hope that this overview will also serve as a useful introduction to the field.

The Contribution of Mutation to Variation in Temperature-Dependent Sprint Speed in Zebrafish, Danio rerio

AbstractThe contribution of new mutations to phenotypic variation and the consequences of this variation for individual fitness are fundamental concepts for understanding genetic variation and adaptation. Here, we investigated how mutation influenced variation in a complex trait in zebrafish, Danio rerio. Typical of many ecologically relevant traits in ectotherms, swimming speed in fish is temperature dependent, with evidence of adaptive evolution of thermal performance. We chemically induced novel germline point mutations in males and measured sprint speed in their sons at six temperatures (between 16°C and 34°C). Heterozygous mutational effects on speed were strongly positively correlated among temperatures, resulting in statistical support for only a single axis of mutational variation, reflecting temperature-independent variation in speed (faster-slower mode). These results suggest pleiotropic effects on speed across different temperatures; however, spurious correlations arise via linkage or heterogeneity in mutation number when mutations have consistent directional effects on each trait. Here, mutation did not change mean speed, indicating no directional bias in mutational effects. The results contribute to emerging evidence that mutations may predominantly have synergistic cross-environment effects, in contrast to conditionally neutral or antagonistic effects that underpin thermal adaptation. We discuss several aspects of experimental design that may affect resolution of mutations with nonsynergistic effects.

Shifts in mutation spectra enhance access to beneficial mutations

Biased mutation spectra are pervasive, with wide variation in the magnitude of mutational biases that influence genome evolution and adaptation. How do such diverse biases evolve? Our experiments show that changing the mutation spectrum allows populations to sample previously undersampled mutational space, including beneficial mutations. The resulting shift in the distribution of fitness effects is advantageous: Beneficial mutation supply and beneficial pleiotropy both increase, while deleterious load reduces. More broadly, simulations indicate that reducing or reversing the direction of a long-term bias is always selectively favored. Such changes in mutation bias can occur easily via altered function of DNA repair genes. A phylogenetic analysis shows that these genes are repeatedly gained and lost in bacterial lineages, leading to frequent bias shifts in opposite directions. Thus, shifts in mutation spectra may evolve under selection and can directly alter the outcome of adaptive evolution by facilitating access to beneficial mutations.

Selection in a growing colony biases results of mutation accumulation experiments

Mutations provide the raw material for natural selection to act. Therefore, understanding the variety and relative frequency of different type of mutations is critical to understanding the nature of genetic diversity in a population. Mutation accumulation (MA) experiments have been used in this context to estimate parameters defining mutation rates, distribution of fitness effects (DFE), and spectrum of mutations. MA experiments can be performed with different effective population sizes. In MA experiments with bacteria, a single founder is grown to a size of a colony (~ 10⁸). It is assumed that natural selection plays a minimal role in dictating the dynamics of colony growth. In this work, we simulate colony growth via a mathematical model, and use our model to mimic an MA experiment. We demonstrate that selection ensures that, in an MA experiment, fraction of all mutations that are beneficial is over-represented by a factor of almost two, and that the distribution of fitness effects of beneficial and deleterious mutations are inaccurately captured in an MA experiment. Given this, the estimate of mutation rates from MA experiments is non-trivial. We then perform an MA experiment with 160 lines of E. coli, and show that due to the effect of selection in a growing colony, the size and sector of a colony from which the experiment is propagated impacts the results. Overall, we demonstrate that the results of MA experiments need to be revisited taking into account the action of selection in a growing colony.

Selection bias in mutation accumulation

Mutation accumulation (MA) experiments, in which de novo mutations are sampled and subsequently characterized, are an essential tool in understanding the processes underlying evolution. In microbial populations, MA protocols typically involve a period of population growth between severe bottlenecks, such that a single individual can form a visible colony. While it has long been appreciated that the action of positive selection during this growth phase cannot be eliminated, it is typically assumed to be negligible. Here, we quantify the effect of both positive and negative selection in MA studies, demonstrating that selective effects can substantially bias the distribution of fitness effects (DFE) and mutation rates estimated from typical MA protocols in microbes. We then present a simple correction for this bias which applies to both beneficial and deleterious mutations, and can be used to correct the observed DFE in multiple environments. We use simulated MA experiments to illustrate the extent to which the MA-inferred DFE differs from the underlying true DFE, and demonstrate that the proposed correction accurately reconstructs the true DFE over a wide range of scenarios; we also provide an example of these corrections applied to experimental data. These results highlight that positive selection during microbial MA experiments is in fact not negligible, but can be corrected to gain a more accurate understanding of fundamental evolutionary parameters. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The Adaptive Potential of the Middle Domain of Yeast Hsp90

The distribution of fitness effects (DFEs) of new mutations across different environments quantifies the potential for adaptation in a given environment and its cost in others. So far, results regarding the cost of adaptation across environments have been mixed, and most studies have sampled random mutations across different genes. Here, we quantify systematically how costs of adaptation vary along a large stretch of protein sequence by studying the distribution of fitness effects of the same ≈2,300 amino-acid changing mutations obtained from deep mutational scanning of 119 amino acids in the middle domain of the heat shock protein Hsp90 in five environments. This region is known to be important for client binding, stabilization of the Hsp90 dimer, stabilization of the N-terminal-Middle and Middle-C-terminal interdomains, and regulation of ATPase–chaperone activity. Interestingly, we find that fitness correlates well across diverse stressful environments, with the exception of one environment, diamide. Consistent with this result, we find little cost of adaptation; on average only one in seven beneficial mutations is deleterious in another environment. We identify a hotspot of beneficial mutations in a region of the protein that is located within an allosteric center. The identified protein regions that are enriched in beneficial, deleterious, and costly mutations coincide with residues that are involved in the stabilization of Hsp90 interdomains and stabilization of client-binding interfaces, or residues that are involved in ATPase–chaperone activity of Hsp90. Thus, our study yields information regarding the role and adaptive potential of a protein sequence that complements and extends known structural information.

Interplay of population size and environmental fluctuations: A new explanation for fitness cost rarity in asexuals

Theoretical models of ecological specialisation commonly assume that adaptation to one environment leads to fitness reductions (costs) in others. However, experiments often fail to detect such costs. We addressed this conundrum using experimental evolution with Escherichia coli in several constant and fluctuating environments at multiple population sizes. We found that in fluctuating environments, smaller populations paid significant costs, but larger ones avoided them altogether. Contrastingly, in constant environments, larger populations paid more costs than the smaller ones. Overall, large population sizes and fluctuating environments led to cost avoidance only when present together. Mutational frequency distributions obtained from whole-genome whole-population sequencing revealed that the primary mechanism of cost avoidance was the enrichment of multiple beneficial mutations within the same lineage. Since the conditions revealed by our study for avoiding costs are widespread, it provides a novel explanation of the conundrum of why the costs expected in theory are rarely detected in experiments.

Dynamics of genetic variation in transcription factors and its implications for the evolution of regulatory networks in Bacteria

The evolution of regulatory networks in Bacteria has largely been explained at macroevolutionary scales through lateral gene transfer and gene duplication. Transcription factors (TF) have been found to be less conserved across species than their target genes (TG). This would be expected if TFs accumulate mutations faster than TGs. This hypothesis is supported by several lab evolution studies which found TFs, especially global regulators, to be frequently mutated. Despite these studies, the contribution of point mutations in TFs to the evolution of regulatory network is poorly understood. We tested if TFs show greater genetic variation than their TGs using whole-genome sequencing data from a large collection of Escherichia coli isolates. TFs were less diverse than their TGs across natural isolates, with TFs of large regulons being more conserved. In contrast, TFs showed higher mutation frequency in adaptive laboratory evolution experiments. However, over long-term laboratory evolution spanning 60 000 generations, mutation frequency in TFs gradually declined after a rapid initial burst. Extrapolating the dynamics of genetic variation from long-term laboratory evolution to natural populations, we propose that point mutations, conferring large-scale gene expression changes, may drive the early stages of adaptation but gene regulation is subjected to stronger purifying selection post adaptation.

Larger bacterial populations evolve heavier fitness trade-offs and undergo greater ecological specialization

Evolutionary studies over the last several decades have invoked fitness trade-offs to explain why species prefer some environments to others. However, the effects of population size on trade-offs and ecological specialization remain largely unknown. To complicate matters, trade-offs themselves have been visualized in multiple ways in the literature. Thus, it is not clear how population size can affect the various aspects of trade-offs. To address these issues, we conducted experimental evolution with Escherichia coli populations of two different sizes in two nutritionally limited environments, and studied fitness trade-offs from three different perspectives. We found that larger populations evolved greater fitness trade-offs, regardless of how trade-offs are conceptualized. Moreover, although larger populations adapted more to their selection conditions, they also became more maladapted to other environments, ultimately paying heavier costs of adaptation. To enhance the generalizability of our results, we further investigated the evolution of ecological specialization across six different environmental pairs, and found that larger populations specialized more frequently and evolved consistently steeper reaction norms of fitness. This is the first study to demonstrate a relationship between population size and fitness trade-offs, and the results are important in understanding the population genetics of ecological specialization and vulnerability to environmental changes.

Genotype-environment interaction and the maintenance of genetic variation: an empirical study of Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae)

High levels of genetic variation are often observed in natural populations, suggesting the action of processes such as frequency-dependent selection, heterozygote advantage and variable selection. However, the maintenance of genetic variation in fitness-related traits remains incompletely explained. The extent of genetic variation in obligately self-fertilizing populations of Lobelia inflata (Campanulaceae L.) strongly implies balancing selection. Lobelia inflata thus offers an exceptional opportunity for an empirical test of genotype-environment interaction (G × E) as a variance-maintaining mechanism under fluctuating selection: L. inflata is monocarpic and reproduces only by seed, facilitating assessment of lifetime fitness; genome-wide homozygosity precludes some mechanisms of balancing selection, and microsatellites are, in effect, genotypic lineage markers. Here, we find support for the temporal G × E hypothesis using a manipulated space-for-time approach across four environments: a field environment, an outdoor experimental plot and two differing growth-chamber environments. High genetic variance was confirmed: 83 field-collected individuals consisted of 45 distinct microsatellite lineages with, on average, 4.5 alleles per locus. Rank-order fitness, measured as lifetime fruit production in 16 replicated multilocus genotypes, changed significantly across environments. Phenotypic differences among microsatellite lineages were detected. Results thus support the G × E hypothesis in principle. However, the evaluation of the effect size of this mechanism and fitness effects of life-history traits will require a long-term study of fluctuating selection on labelled genotypes in the field.

Antagonistic pleiotropy conceals molecular adaptations in changing environments

The importance of positive selection in molecular evolution is debated. Evolution experiments under invariant laboratory conditions typically show a higher rate of nonsynonymous nucleotide changes than the rate of synonymous changes, demonstrating prevalent molecular adaptations. Natural evolution inferred from genomic comparisons, however, almost always exhibits the opposite pattern even among closely related conspecifics, which is indicative of a paucity of positive selection. Here we hypothesize that this apparent contradiction is at least in part attributable to ubiquitous and frequent environmental changes in nature, causing nonsynonymous mutations that are beneficial at one time to become deleterious soon after because of antagonistic pleiotropy and hindering their fixations relative to synonymous mutations despite continued population adaptations. To test this hypothesis, we performed yeast evolution experiments in changing and corresponding constant environments, followed by genome sequencing of the evolving populations. We observed a lower nonsynonymous to synonymous rate ratio in antagonistic changing environments than in the corresponding constant environments, and the population dynamics of mutations supports our hypothesis. These findings and the accompanying population genetic simulations suggest that molecular adaptation is consistently underestimated in nature due to the antagonistic fitness effects of mutations in changing environments.

Evolutionary changes of an intestinal Lactobacillus reuteri during probiotic manufacture

Probiotic bacteria are frequently used to treat intestinal diseases or to improve health; however, little is known about the evolutionary changes of these bacteria during probiotic manufacture and the bacterial ability to colonize the intestine. It has been observed that when bacteria adapt to a new environment, they lose some traits required to thrive in the original niche. In this study, a strain of Lactobacillus reuteri was isolated from mouse duodenum and subjected to 150 serial passes in milk to simulate the industrial propagation of probiotic bacteria. The strains adapted to milk outperformed their ancestor when grown in milk; we also showed evidence of reduced intestinal colonization of milk‐adapted strains. Whole‐genome sequencing showed that bacterial adaptation to milk selects mutants with altered metabolic functions.