1
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Niculet E, Bobeica C, Tatu AL. Glucocorticoid-Induced Skin Atrophy: The Old and the New. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2020; 13:1041-1050. [PMID: 33408495 PMCID: PMC7779293 DOI: 10.2147/ccid.s224211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are major therapeutic agents highly used in the medical field. Topical glucocorticoids have biologic activities which make them useful in dermatology – anti-inflammatory, vasoconstrictive, immune suppressive and antiproliferative, in treating inflammatory skin disorders (allergic contact eczema, atopic hand eczema, nummular eczema, psoriasis vulgaris or toxic-irritative eczema). Unfortunately, the beneficial effects of topical glucocorticoids are shadowed by their potential for adverse effects – muscle or skin atrophy, striae distensae, rubeosis or acne. Skin atrophy is one of the most prevalent side-effects, with changes found in all skin compartments – marked hypoplasia, elasticity loss with tearing, increased fragility, telangiectasia, bruising, cutaneous transparency, or a dysfunctional skin barrier. The structure and function of the epidermis is altered even in the short-term topical glucocorticoid treatment; it affects stratum corneum components, subsequently affecting skin barrier integrity. The dermis is altered by directly inhibiting fibroblast proliferation, reducing mast cell numbers, and loss of support; there is depletion of mucopolysaccharides, elastin fibers, matrix metalloproteases and inhibition of collagen synthesis. Atrophogenic changes can be found also in hair follicles, sebaceous glands or dermal adipose tissue. Attention should be paid to topical glucocorticoid treatment prescription, to the beneficial/adverse effects ratio of the chosen agent, and studies should be oriented on the development of newer, innovative targeted (gene or receptor) therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Niculet
- Department of Morphological and Functional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, "Dunarea de Jos" University, Galati, Romania
| | - Carmen Bobeica
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Gr. T. Popa", Iași, Romania
| | - Alin L Tatu
- Clinical Department, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, "Dunarea de Jos" University, Galati, Romania.,Research Center in the Field of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ReFORM-UDJ, Galati, Romania.,Dermatology Department, "Sf. Cuvioasa Parascheva" Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, Galati, Romania
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2
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Abstract
Vitamin A is a general term for retinoids. Vitamin A deficiency leads to a variety of cutaneous manifestations. It also functions as a hormone through retinoic acid receptors altering the activity of multiple cell lines. Pancreatic vitamin A levels are critical for retinoid signaling and normal pancreatic control of glucose. Vitamin A deficiency is more common during infection, and supplementation reduces severe morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases. Vitamin A modulates activities at the cellular level and, via its interrelationship with hormones such as thyroid, insulin, and corticosteroids, has diffuse metabolic effects on the body. It plays an important role in all stages of wound healing. Vitamin A is known for its ability to stimulate epithelial growth, fibroblasts, granulation tissue, angiogenesis, collagen synthesis, epithelialization, and fibroplasia. Local (topical) and systemic supplementation with vitamin A has been proven to increase dermal collagen deposition. There are numerous animal studies and limited human studies regarding physiologic effect of vitamin A on acute or chronic wounds via systemic or topical administration. The most common use of vitamin A supplementation is to offset steroids' effect. When considering supplementation, the potential benefits must be weighed against the risk of harm. Vitamin A toxicity can be critical and even result in death. The evidence for supplementation with vitamin A is currently limited to expert opinion and is not backed up by rigorous trials. There is an acute need for therapeutic trials with vitamin A supplementations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Zinder
- Wound Care and Hyperbaric Medical Center of the Department of Plastic Surgery of Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel Cooley
- Wound Care and Hyperbaric Medical Center of the Department of Plastic Surgery of Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lucian G Vlad
- Wound Care and Hyperbaric Medical Center of the Department of Plastic Surgery of Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joseph A Molnar
- Wound Care and Hyperbaric Medical Center of the Department of Plastic Surgery of Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
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3
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Li J, Wilson MN, Bower AJ, Marjanovic M, Chaney EJ, Barkalifa R, Boppart SA. Video-rate multimodal multiphoton imaging and three-dimensional characterization of cellular dynamics in wounded skin. JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE OPTICAL HEALTH SCIENCES 2020; 13:2050007. [PMID: 33584862 PMCID: PMC7880242 DOI: 10.1142/s1793545820500078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
To date, numerous studies have been performed to elucidate the complex cellular dynamics in skin diseases, but few have attempted to characterize these cellular events under conditions similar to the native environment. To address this challenge, a three-dimensional (3D) multimodal analysis platform was developed for characterizing in vivo cellular dynamics in skin, which was then utilized to process in vivo wound healing data to demonstrate its applicability. Special attention is focused on in vivo biological parameters that are difficult to study with ex vivo analysis, including 3D cell tracking and techniques to connect biological information obtained from different imaging modalities. These results here open new possibilities for evaluating 3D cellular dynamics in vivo, and can potentially provide new tools for characterizing the skin microenvironment and pathologies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Li
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Madison N. Wilson
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Andrew J. Bower
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Marina Marjanovic
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Eric J. Chaney
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Ronit Barkalifa
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
| | - Stephen A. Boppart
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
- Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, U.S.A
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4
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Vallini V, Rinaldi E, Mangano L, Modesti L, Ghelardini P, Roberts AT, Grazi G. Multiple subcutaneous haematomas of the legs causing skin necrosis in an elderly patient affected by corticosteroid-induced skin atrophy: Case report and review of literature. Int Wound J 2020; 17:540-546. [PMID: 31972900 DOI: 10.1111/iwj.13312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Corticosteroid-induced skin atrophy (CISA) consists of a thinning of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, representing the natural consequence of a prolonged glucocorticosteroids use, both systemic as well as topical. It is characterised by the loss of elasticity and skin thickness, associated with an increased skin fragility leading to ecchymoses, haematomas, and steroid purpura. The management of CISA is a challenge for physicians, as the pathology is reversible in a minimal percentage of cases and only after a short topical steroid or low-dose course therapy. Often wounds with large loss of substance represent the more common complication, after a surgical drainage which is often necessary. Skin necrosis with compartment syndrome of a leg is another potential risk for these patients. Here, we report a case of an elderly patient affected by multiple subcutaneous haematomas of the legs causing skin necrosis, arisen after the use of anticoagulants for a deep venous thrombosis. The patient was successfully treated with surgical drainage, negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), and porcine xenograft with no complications. Finally, we discuss the evidence of the current literature on topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Vallini
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Rinaldi
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
| | - Luciana Mangano
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
| | - Luca Modesti
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Ortopedia, Ospedale Felice Lotti, Pisa, Italy
| | - Piero Ghelardini
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
| | - Anna Theresa Roberts
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Grazi
- Azienda USL Toscana nord ovest, U.O. Medicina Interna, Ospedale Santa Maria Maddalena, Pisa, Italy
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5
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Lee JH, Shih YT, Wei ML, Sun CK, Chiang BL. Classification of established atopic dermatitis in children with the in vivo imaging methods. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2019; 12:e201800148. [PMID: 30302943 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201800148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a cutaneous disease resulting from a defective barrier and dysregulated immune response. The severity scoring of atopic dermatitis (SCORAD) is used to classify AD. Noninvasive imaging approaches supplementary to SCORAD were investigated. Cr:forsterite laser-based microscopy was employed to analyze endogenous third-harmonic generation (THG) and second-harmonic generation (SHG) signals from skin. Imaging parameters were compared between different AD severities. Three-dimensional reconstruction of imaged skin layers was performed. Finally, statistic models from quantitative imaging parameters were developed for predicting disease severity. Our data demonstrate that THG signal intensity of lesional skin in AD were significantly increased and was positively correlated with AD severity. Characteristic gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) values were observed in more severe AD. In the 3D reconstruction video, individual dermal papilla and obvious fibrosis in the upper papillary dermis were easily identified. Our estimation models could predict the disease severity of AD patients with an accuracy of nearly 85%. The THG signal intensity and characteristic GLCM patterns are associated with AD severity and can serve as quantitative predictive parameters. Our imaging approach can be used to identify the histopathological changes of AD objectively, and to complement the SCORAD index, thus improving the accuracy of classifying AD severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyh-Hong Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yuan-Ta Shih
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ming-Liang Wei
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chi-Kuang Sun
- Graduate Institute of Photonics and Optoelectronics and Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Research Center for Applied Sciences and Institute of Physics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Bor-Luen Chiang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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6
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Bower AJ, Li J, Chaney EJ, Marjanovic M, Spillman DR, Boppart SA. High-speed imaging of transient metabolic dynamics using two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. OPTICA 2018; 5:1290-1296. [PMID: 30984802 PMCID: PMC6457362 DOI: 10.1364/optica.5.001290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2P-FLIM) of autofluorescent metabolic coenzymes has been widely used to investigate energetic perturbations in living cells and tissues in a label-free manner with subcellular resolution. While the currently used state-of-the-art instruments are highly sensitive to local molecular changes associated with these metabolic processes, they are inherently slow and limit the study of dynamic metabolic environments. Here, a sustained video-rate 2P-FLIM imaging system is demonstrated for time-lapse lifetime imaging of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, an autofluorescent metabolic coenzyme involved in both aerobic and anaerobic processes. This system is sufficiently sensitive to differences in metabolic activity between aggressive and nonaggressive cancer cell lines and is demonstrated for both wide field-of-view autofluorescence imaging as well as sustained video-rate image acquisition of metabolic dynamics following induction of apoptosis. The unique capabilities ofthis imaging platform provide a powerful technological advance to further explore rapid metabolic dynamics in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Bower
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Joanne Li
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Eric J. Chaney
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Marina Marjanovic
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Carle-Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Darold R. Spillman
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Stephen A. Boppart
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405 N. MathewsAve, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Carle-Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Corresponding author:
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7
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Alex A, Frey S, Angelene H, Neitzel C, Li J, Bower A, Spillman D, Marjanovic M, Chaney E, Medler J, Lee W, Vasist Johnson L, Boppart S, Arp Z. In situ
biodistribution and residency of a topical anti‐inflammatory using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. Br J Dermatol 2018; 179:1342-1350. [DOI: 10.1111/bjd.16992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - J. Li
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - A.J. Bower
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - D.R. Spillman
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - M. Marjanovic
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - E.J. Chaney
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | | | - W. Lee
- Carle Foundation Hospital Urbana IL U.S.A
| | | | - S.A. Boppart
- University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign Urbana IL U.S.A
| | - Z. Arp
- GSK, Collegeville PA U.S.A
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8
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Bower AJ, Mahmassani Z, Zhao Y, Chaney EJ, Marjanovic M, Lee MK, Graf BW, De Lisio M, Kong H, Boppart MD, Boppart SA. In Vivo Assessment of Engineered Skin Cell Delivery with Multimodal Optical Microscopy. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2018; 23:434-442. [PMID: 28605991 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2017.0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The healing process is often significantly impaired under conditions of chronic or large area wounds, which are often treated clinically using autologous split-thickness skin grafts. However, in many cases, harvesting of donor tissue presents a serious problem such as in the case of very large area burns. In response to this, engineered biomaterials have emerged that attempt to mimic the natural skin environment or deliver a suitable therapy to assist in the healing process. In this study, a custom-built multimodal optical microscope capable of noninvasive structural and functional imaging is used to investigate both the engineered tissue microenvironment and the in vivo wound healing process. Investigation of various engineered scaffolds show the strong relationship among the microenvironment of the scaffold, the organization of the cells within the scaffold, and the delivery pattern of these cells onto the healing wound. Through noninvasive tracking of these processes and parameters, multimodal optical microscopy provides an important tool in the assessment of engineered scaffolds both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Bower
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Ziad Mahmassani
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,3 Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Youbo Zhao
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Eric J Chaney
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Marina Marjanovic
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,4 Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Min Kyung Lee
- 5 Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Benedikt W Graf
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Michael De Lisio
- 3 Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,6 School of Human Kinetics, Brain and Mind Research Institute and Centre for Neuromuscular Disease, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Canada
| | - Hyunjoon Kong
- 5 Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Marni D Boppart
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,3 Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
| | - Stephen A Boppart
- 1 Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,4 Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois.,7 Department of Internal Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, Illinois
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9
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Bower AJ, Chidester B, Li J, Zhao Y, Marjanovic M, Chaney EJ, Do MN, Boppart SA. A quantitative framework for the analysis of multimodal optical microscopy images. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2017; 7:24-37. [PMID: 28275557 DOI: 10.21037/qims.2017.02.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multimodal optical microscopy, a set of imaging techniques based on unique, yet complementary contrast mechanisms and spatially and temporally co-registered data acquisition, has emerged as a powerful biomedical tool. However, the analysis of the dense, high-dimensional datasets acquired by these instruments remains mostly qualitative and restricted to analysis of each modality individually. METHODS Using a custom-built multimodal nonlinear optical microscope, high dimensional datasets were acquired for automated classification of functional cell states as well as identification of histopathological features in tissues slices. Supervised classification of cell death modes was performed through support vector machines (SVM) and semi-supervised classification of tissue slices was performed through the use of the expectation maximization (EM) algorithm. RESULTS Applications of these techniques to the automated classification of cell death modes as well as to the identification of tissue components in fixed ex vivo tissue slices are presented. The analysis techniques developed provide a direct link between multimodal image contrast and biological structure and function, resulting in highly accurate classification in both settings. CONCLUSIONS Quantification of multimodal optical microscopy images through statistical modeling of the high dimensional data acquired gives a strong correlation between biological structure and function and image contrast. These methods are sensitive to the identification of diagnostic, cellular-level features important in a variety of clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Bower
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Benjamin Chidester
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Joanne Li
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Youbo Zhao
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Marina Marjanovic
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Eric J Chaney
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Minh N Do
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Stephen A Boppart
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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