Evidence for lack of direct causality between pain and affective disturbances in a rat peripheral neuropathy model

Minocycline Abrogates Individual Differences in Nerve Injury-Evoked Affective Disturbances in Male Rats and Prevents Associated Supraspinal Neuroinflammation

Chronic neuropathic pain precipitates a complex range of affective and behavioural disturbances that differ markedly between individuals. While the reasons for differences in pain-related disability are not well understood, supraspinal neuroimmune interactions are implicated. Minocycline has antidepressant effects in humans and attenuates affective disturbances in rodent models of pain, and acts by reducing neuroinflammation in both the spinal cord and brain. Previous studies, however, tend not to investigate how minocycline modulates individual affective responses to nerve injury, or rely on non-naturalistic behavioural paradigms that fail to capture the complexity of rodent behaviour. We investigated the development and resolution of pain-related affective disturbances in nerve-injured male rats by measuring multiple spontaneous ethological endpoints on a longitudinal naturalistic foraging paradigm, and the effect of chronic oral minocycline administration on these changes. Disrupted foraging behaviours appeared in 22% of nerve-injured rats - termed 'affected' rats - and were present at day 14 but partially resolved by day 21 post-injury. Minocycline completely prevented the emergence of an affected subgroup while only partly attenuating mechanical allodynia, dissociating the relationship between pain and affect. This was associated with a lasting downregulation of ΔFosB expression in ventral hippocampal neurons at day 21 post-injury. Markers of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation were not present by day 21, however proinflammatory microglial polarisation was apparent in the medial prefrontal cortex of affected rats and not in CCI minocycline rats. Individual differences in affective disturbances following nerve injury are therefore temporally related to altered microglial morphology and hippocampal neuronal activation, and are abrogated by minocycline.

Fibromyalgia is associated with hypersensitivity but not with abnormal pain modulation: evidence from QST trials and spinal fMRI

Widespread pain and hyperalgesia are characteristics of chronic musculoskeletal pain conditions, including fibromyalgia syndrome (FM). Despite mixed evidence, there is increasing consensus that these characteristics depend on abnormal pain augmentation and dysfunctional pain inhibition. Our recent investigations of pain modulation with individually adjusted nociceptive stimuli have confirmed the mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia of FM patients but failed to detect abnormalities of pain summation or descending pain inhibition. Furthermore, our functional magnetic resonance imaging evaluations of spinal and brainstem pain processing during application of sensitivity-adjusted heat stimuli demonstrated similar temporal patterns of spinal cord activation in FM and HC participants. However, detailed modeling of brainstem activation showed that BOLD activity during "pain summation" was increased in FM subjects, suggesting differences in brain stem modulation of nociceptive stimuli compared to HC. Whereas these differences in brain stem activation are likely related to the hypersensitivity of FM patients, the overall central pain modulation of FM showed no significant abnormalities. These findings suggest that FM patients are hyperalgesic but modulate nociceptive input as effectively as HC.

Normalization of Neuroinflammation: A New Strategy for Treatment of Persistent Pain and Memory/Emotional Deficits in Chronic Pain

Chronic pain, which affects around 1/3 of the world population and is often comorbid with memory deficit and mood depression, is a leading source of suffering and disability. Studies in past decades have shown that hyperexcitability of primary sensory neurons resulting from abnormal expression of ion channels and central sensitization mediated pathological synaptic plasticity, such as long-term potentiation in spinal dorsal horn, underlie the persistent pain. The memory/emotional deficits are associated with impaired synaptic connectivity in hippocampus. Dysregulation of numerous endogenous proteins including receptors and intracellular signaling molecules is involved in the pathological processes. However, increasing knowledge contributes little to clinical treatment. Emerging evidence has demonstrated that the neuroinflammation, characterized by overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and glial activation, is reliably detected in humans and animals with chronic pain, and is sufficient to induce persistent pain and memory/emotional deficits. The abnormal expression of ion channels and pathological synaptic plasticity in spinal dorsal horn and in hippocampus are resulting from neuroinflammation. The neuroinflammation is initiated and maintained by the interactions of circulating monocytes, glial cells and neurons. Obviously, unlike infectious diseases and cancer, which are caused by pathogens or malignant cells, chronic pain is resulting from alterations of cells and molecules which have numerous physiological functions. Therefore, normalization (counterbalance) but not simple inhibition of the neuroinflammation is the right strategy for treating neuronal disorders. Currently, no such agent is available in clinic. While experimental studies have demonstrated that intracellular Mg²⁺ deficiency is a common feature of chronic pain in animal models and supplement Mg²⁺ are capable of normalizing the neuroinflammation, activation of upregulated proteins that promote recovery, such as translocator protein (18k Da) or liver X receptors, has a similar effect. In this article, relevant experimental and clinical evidence is reviewed and discussed.

Sciatic nerve injury rebalances the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in rats with persistent changes to their social behaviours

Increased glucocorticoids characterise acute pain responses, but not the chronic pain state, suggesting specific modifications to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis preventing the persistent nature of chronic pain from elevating basal glucocorticoid levels. Individuals with chronic pain mount normal HPA-axis responses to acute stressors, indicating a rebalancing of the circuits underpinning these responses. Preclinical models of chronic neuropathic pain generally recapitulate these clinical observations, but few studies have considered that the underlying neuroendocrine circuitry may be altered. Additionally, individual differences in the behavioural outcomes of these pain models, which are strikingly similar to the range of behavioural subpopulations that manifest in response to stress, threat and motivational cues, may also be reflected in divergent patterns of HPA-axis activity, which characterises these other behavioural subpopulations. We investigated the effects of sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI) on adrenocortical and hypothalamic markers of HPA-axis activity in the subpopulation of rats showing persistent changes in social interactions after CCI (Persistent Effect) and compared them with rats that do not show these changes (No Effect). Basal plasma corticosterone did not change after CCI and did not differ between groups. However, adrenocortical sensitivity to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) diverged between these groups. No Effect rats showed large increases in basal plasma ACTH with no change in adrenocortical melanocortin 2 receptor (MC₂ R) expression, whereas Persistent Effect rats showed modest decreases in plasma ACTH and large increases in MC₂ R expression. In the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus of Persistent Effect rats, single labelling revealed significantly increased numbers of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) +ve and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) +ve neurons. Double-labelling revealed fewer GR +ve CRF +ve neurons, suggesting a decreased hypothalamic sensitivity of CRF neurons to circulating corticosterone in Persistent Effect rats. We suggest that in addition to rebalancing the HPA-axis, the increased CRF expression in Persistent Effect rats contributes to changes in complex behaviours, and in particular social interactions.

Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex–Ventrolateral Periaqueductal Gray Circuit Underlies Electroacupuncture to Alleviate Hyperalgesia but Not Anxiety-Like Behaviors in Mice With Spared Nerve Injury

Neuropathic pain is a common cause of chronic pain and is often accompanied by negative emotions, making it complex and difficult to treat. However, the neural circuit mechanisms underlying these symptoms remain unclear. Herein, we present a novel pathway associated with comorbid chronic pain and anxiety. Using chemogenetic methods, we found that activation of glutamatergic projections from the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC^Glu) to the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) induced both hyperalgesia and anxiety-like behaviors in sham mice. Inhibition of the rACC^Glu-vlPAG pathway reduced anxiety-like behaviors and hyperalgesia in the spared nerve injury (SNI) mice model; moreover, electroacupuncture (EA) effectively alleviated these symptoms. Investigation of the related mechanisms revealed that the chemogenetic activation of the rACC^Glu-vlPAG circuit effectively blocked the analgesic effect of EA in the SNI mice model but did not affect the chronic pain-induced negative emotions. This study revealed a novel pathway, the rACC^Glu-vlPAG pathway, that mediates neuropathic pain and pain-induced anxiety.

Diet, body weight and pain susceptibility - A systematic review of preclinical studies

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Obesity has been associated with increased susceptibility to chronic pain.

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Dietary and genetic models of obesity have been used to study this association.

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Allodynia is a common finding but alterations in nociception were inconsistent across studies.

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In subacute/chronic models, nocifencive behaviors were increased and/or sustained.

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Reviewed studies are overall consonant with the clinical literature.

Obesity has been associated with increased chronic pain susceptibility but causes are unclear. In this review, we systematize and analyze pain outcomes in rodent models of obesity as these can be important tools for mechanistic studies. Studies were identified using MEDLINE/PubMed and Scopus databases using the following search query: (((pain) OR (nociception)) AND (obesity)) AND (rat OR (mouse) OR (rodent))). From each eligible record we extracted the following data: species, strain, sex, pain/obesity model and main behavioral readouts. Out of 695 records 33 were selected for inclusion. 27 studies assessed nociception/acute pain and 17 studies assessed subacute or chronic pain. Overall genetic and dietary models overlapped in pain-related outcomes. Most acute pain studies reported either decreased or unaltered responses to noxious painful stimuli. However, decreased thresholds to mechanical innocuous stimuli, i.e. allodynia, were frequently reported. In most studies using subacute and chronic pain models, namely of subcutaneous inflammation, arthritis and perineural inflammation, decreased thresholds and/or prolonged pain manifestations were reported in obesity models. Strain comparisons and longitudinal observations indicate that genetic factors and the time course of the pathology might account for some of the discrepancies observed across studies. Two studies reported increased pain in animals subjected to high fat diet in the absence of weight gain. Pain-related outcomes in experimental models and clinical obesity are aligned indicating that the rodent can be an useful tool to study the interplay between diet, obesity and pain. In both cases weight gain might represent only a minor contribution to abnormal pain manifestation.

Chronic pain susceptibility is associated with anhedonic behavior and alterations in the accumbal ubiquitin-proteasome system

ABSTRACT

It remains unknown why on similar acute/subacute painful conditions, pain persists in some individuals while in others it resolves. Genetic factors, mood, and functional alterations, particularly involving the mesolimbic network, seem to be key. To explore potential susceptibility or resistance factors, we screened a large population of rats with a peripheral neuropathy and we isolated a small subset (<15%) that presented high thresholds (HTs) to mechanical allodynia (reduced pain manifestation). The phenotype was sustained over 12 weeks and was associated with higher hedonic behavior when compared with low-threshold (LT) subjects. The nucleus accumbens of HT and LT animals were isolated for proteomic analysis by Sequential Window Acquisition of All Theoretical Mass Spectra. Two hundred seventy-nine proteins displayed different expression between LT and HT animals or subjects. Among several protein families, the proteasome pathway repeatedly emerged in gene ontology enrichment and KEGG analyses. Several alpha and beta 20S proteasome subunits were increased in LT animals when compared with HT animals (eg, PSMα1, PSMα2, and PSMβ5). On the contrary, UBA6, an upstream ubiquitin-activating enzyme, was decreased in LT animals. Altogether these observations are consistent with an overactivation of the accumbal proteasome pathway in animals that manifest pain and depressive-like behaviors after a neuropathic injury. All the proteomic data are available through ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD022478.

Characterization of acute pain-induced behavioral passivity in mice: Insights from statistical modeling

Affective-motivational disturbances are highly inconsistent in animal pain models. The reproducibility of the open-field test in assessing anxiety, malaise or disability remains controversial despite its popularity. While traumatic, persistent or multiregional pain models are commonly considered more effective in inducing negative affect or functional impairment, the early psychobehavioral changes before pain chronification are often underexplored. Here, we aimed to clarify the fundamental relationship between hypernociception and passive distress-like behavior using a model of transient inflammatory pain. To minimize latent confounders and increase data consistency, male C57BL/6N mice were habituated to the open-field arena 6 times before receiving the unilateral intraplantar injection of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) or vehicle. Open-field (40-min exploration) and nociceptive behavior were evaluated repeatedly along the course of hypernociception in both wild-type and transgenic mice with a known pronociceptive phenotype. To reduce subjectivity, multivariate open-field behavioral outcomes were analyzed by statistical modeling based on exploratory factor analyses, which yielded a 2-factor solution. Within 3 hr after PGE2 injection, mice developed significantly reduced center exploration (factor 1) and a marginally significant increase in their habituation tendency (factor 2), which were not apparent in vehicle-injected mice. The behavioral passivity generally improved as hypernociception subsided. Therefore, transient inflammatory irritation is sufficient to suppress mouse open-field exploratory activity. The apparent absence of late affective-motivational changes in some rodents with prolonged hypernociception may not imply a lack of preceding or underlying neuropsychological alterations. Procedural pain after invasive animal experiments, however small, should be assessed and adequately controlled as a potential research confounder.

The influence of rat strain on the development of neuropathic pain and comorbid anxio-depressive behaviour after nerve injury

Back-translating the clinical manifestations of human disease burden into animal models is increasingly recognized as an important facet of preclinical drug discovery. We hypothesized that inbred rat strains possessing stress hyper-reactive-, depressive- or anxiety-like phenotypes may possess more translational value than common outbred strains for modeling neuropathic pain. Rats (inbred: LEW, WKY, F344/ICO and F344/DU, outbred: Crl:SD) were exposed to Spared Nerve Injury (SNI) and evaluated routinely for 6 months on behaviours related to pain (von Frey stimulation and CatWalk-gait analysis), anxiety (elevated plus maze, EPM) and depression (sucrose preference test, SPT). Markers of stress reactivity together with spinal/brain opioid receptor expression were also measured. All strains variously developed mechanical allodynia after SNI with the exception of stress-hyporesponsive LEW rats, despite all strains displaying similar functional gait-deficits after injury. However, affective changes reflective of anxiety- and depressive-like behaviour were only observed for F344/DU in the EPM, and for Crl:SD in SPT. Although differences in stress reactivity and opioid receptor expression occurred, overall they were relatively unaffected by SNI. Thus, anxio-depressive behaviours did not develop in all strains after nerve injury, and correlated only modestly with degree of pain sensitivity or with genetic predisposition to stress and/or affective disturbances.

Mesocorticolimbic monoamines in a rodent model of chronic neuropathic pain

Chronic pain manifests in multiple disorders and is highly debilitating. While its pathophysiology is not fully understood, the involvement of the mesocorticolimbic monoaminergic systems have been shown to play a critical role in chronic pain emergence and/or maintenance. In this study, we analyzed the levels of monoamines dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) in mesocorticolimbic areas - medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, striatum, nucleus accumbens and amygdala - 1 month after a neuropathic lesion, Spared Nerve Injury (SNI). In SNI animals, were observed a marginal decrease of DA and 5-HT in the striatum and a rightward shift in the levels of NA in the nucleus accumbens. While mesocorticolimbic monoamines might be relevant for chronic pain pathophysiology its content appears to be relatively unaffected in our experimental conditions.

Combination of a Gellan Gum-Based Hydrogel With Cell Therapy for the Treatment of Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

Cervical spinal cord trauma represents more than half of the spinal cord injury (SCI) cases worldwide. Respiratory compromise, as well as severe limb motor deficits, are among the main consequences of cervical lesions. In the present work, a Gellan Gum (GG)-based hydrogel modified with GRGDS peptide, together with adipose tissue-derived stem/stromal cells (ASCs) and olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), was used as a therapeutic strategy after a C2 hemisection SCI in rats. Hydrogel or cells alone, and a group without treatment, were also tested. Four weeks after injury, compound muscle action potentials (CMAPs) were performed to assess functional phrenic motor neuron (PhMN) innervation of the diaphragm; no differences were observed amongst groups, confirming that the PhMN pool located between C3 and C5 was not affected by the C2 injury or by the treatments. In the same line, the vast majority of diaphragmatic neuromuscular junctions remained intact. Five weeks post-injury, inspiratory bursting of the affected ipsilateral hemidiaphragm was evaluated through EMG recordings of dorsal, medial and ventral subregions of the muscle. All treatments significantly increased EMG amplitude at the ventral portion in comparison to untreated animals, but only the combinatorial group presented increased EMG amplitude at the medial portion of the hemidiaphragm. No differences were observed in forelimb motor function, neither in markers for axonal regrowth (neuronal tracers), astrogliosis (GFAP) and inflammatory cells (CD68). Moreover, using Von Frey testing of mechanical allodynia, it was possible to find a significant effect of the group combining hydrogel and cells on hypersensitivity; rats with a SCI displayed an increased response of the contralateral forelimb to a normally innocuous mechanical stimulus, but after treatment with the combinatorial therapy this behavior was reverted almost to the levels of uninjured controls. These results suggest that our therapeutic approach may have beneficial effects on both diaphragmatic recovery and sensory function.

Unilateral accumbal dopamine depletion affects decision-making in a side-specific manner

Mechanisms underlying affective and cognitive deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD) remain less studied than motor symptoms. Nucleus accumbens (NAc) is affected in PD and due to its well-known involvement in motivation is an interesting target in this context. Furthermore, PD is frequently asymmetrical, with side-specific deficits aligning with evidences of accumbal laterality. We therefore used a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model to study the role of left and right NAc dopamine depletion in a battery of behavioral tasks. 2 months old male rats were used in all experiments. Habitual-based and goal-directed decision-making, impulsivity, anxiety- and depressive-like behavior and motor performance were tested 3 weeks after left (6-OHDA L) or right (6-OHDA R) NAc lesion was induced. Upon contingency degradation, 6-OHDA R decrease their lever press rate less than Sham and 6-OHDA L, indicating an impairment in the shift from habit-based to goal-directed strategies. On the other hand, 6-OHDA L lesions lead to increased rates of premature responding when delays where increased in the variable delay-to-signal test. Importantly, in both paradigms task acquisition was similar between groups. In the same line we found no differences in the amount of sugared pellets eaten when freely available as well as in both general and fine motor behaviors. In conclusion, left and right NAc play distinct roles in the contingency degradation and impulsivity. More studies are needed to understand the mechanisms behind this functional lateralization and its implications for PD patients.

High trait impulsivity potentiates the effects of chronic pain on impulsive behavior

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We explored a potential relation between trait and chronic pain-induced impulsivity.

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Low trait impulsivity rats with neuropathic pain perform similarly to controls.

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High trait impulsivity rats are delay intolerant in chronic pain conditions.

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Trait characteristics influence chronic pain comorbid manifestations.

Preclinical studies on impulsive decision-making in chronic pain conditions are sparse and often contradictory. Outbred rat populations are heterogeneous regarding trait impulsivity manifestations and therefore we hypothesized that chronic pain-related alterations depend on individual traits. To test this hypothesis, we used male Wistar-Han rats in two independent experiments. Firstly, we tested the impact of spared nerve injury (SNI) in impulsive behavior evaluated by the variable delay-to-signal test (VDS). In the second experiment, SNI impact on impulsivity was again tested, but in groups previously categorized as high (HI) and low (LI) trait impulsivity in the VDS.

Results showed that in an heterogenous population SNI-related impact on motor impulsivity and delay intolerance cannot be detected. However, when baseline impulsivity was considered, HI showed a significantly higher delay intolerance than the respective controls more prevalent in left-lesioned animals and appearing to result from a response correction on prematurity from VDS I to VDS II, which was present in Sham and right-lesioned animals.

In conclusion, baseline differences should be more often considered when analyzing chronic pain impact. While this study pertained to impulsive behavior, other reports indicate that this can be generalized to other behavioral dimensions and that trait differences can influence not only the manifestation of comorbid behaviors but also pain itself in a complex and not totally understood manner.