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Wood PL, Wood MD, Kunigelis SC. Pilot Lipidomics Study of Copepods: Investigation of Potential Lipid-Based Biomarkers for the Early Detection and Quantification of the Biological Effects of Climate Change on the Oceanic Food Chain. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2335. [PMID: 38137936 PMCID: PMC10744631 DOI: 10.3390/life13122335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Maintenance of the health of our oceans is critical for the survival of the oceanic food chain upon which humanity is dependent. Zooplanktonic copepods are among the most numerous multicellular organisms on earth. As the base of the primary consumer food web, they constitute a major biomass in oceans, being an important food source for fish and functioning in the carbon cycle. The potential impact of climate change on copepod populations is an area of intense study. Omics technologies offer the potential to detect early metabolic alterations induced by the stresses of climate change. One such omics approach is lipidomics, which can accurately quantify changes in lipid pools serving structural, signal transduction, and energy roles. We utilized high-resolution mass spectrometry (≤2 ppm mass error) to characterize the lipidome of three different species of copepods in an effort to identify lipid-based biomarkers of copepod health and viability which are more sensitive than observational tools. With the establishment of such a lipid database, we will have an analytical platform useful for prospectively monitoring the lipidome of copepods in a planned long-term five-year ecological study of climate change on this oceanic sentinel species. The copepods examined in this pilot study included a North Atlantic species (Calanus finmarchicus) and two species from the Gulf of Mexico, one a filter feeder (Acartia tonsa) and one a hunter (Labidocerca aestiva). Our findings clearly indicate that the lipidomes of copepod species can vary greatly, supporting the need to obtain a broad snapshot of each unique lipidome in a long-term multigeneration prospective study of climate change. This is critical, since there may well be species-specific responses to the stressors of climate change and co-stressors such as pollution. While lipid nomenclature and biochemistry are extremely complex, it is not essential for all readers interested in climate change to understand all of the various lipid classes presented in this study. The clear message from this research is that we can monitor key copepod lipid families with high accuracy, and therefore potentially monitor lipid families that respond to environmental perturbations evoked by climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul L. Wood
- Metabolomics Unit, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, 6965 Cumberland Gap Pkwy., Harrogate, TN 37752, USA
| | - Michael D. Wood
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, BC Children’s and Women’s Hospital & Provincial Health Services Authority, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada;
| | - Stan C. Kunigelis
- Imaging and Analysis Center, DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, 6965 Cumberland Gap Pkwy., Harrogate, TN 37752, USA;
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Gore M, Camplisson E, Ormond R. The biology and ecology of the basking shark: A review. ADVANCES IN MARINE BIOLOGY 2023; 95:113-257. [PMID: 37923538 DOI: 10.1016/bs.amb.2023.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Here we review the literature on the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus, Gunnerus, 1765), well known as the second largest extant shark (and fish) species globally. Previous reviews were published by Kunzlik in 1988 and Sims in 2008, but in the last 15 years modern electronic and DNA sequencing technologies have resulted in considerable advances in our knowledge of the species' behaviour and ecology. Basking sharks are planktivores and under appropriate conditions spend prolonged periods at the ocean surface feeding on copepod prey that primarily make up their diet, the behaviour that gave rise to their common name. In general, they are migratory and move into higher latitude waters during the summer months, when loose surface-feeding aggregations may form at favoured sites, the best known of which at present occur at hotspots on the west coasts of Britain and Ireland. The species is found circumglobally in temperate waters, but they are also now known on occasion to migrate at depth between northern and southern hemispheres, as well as across oceans within the northern hemisphere. In the past basking shark were more abundant across much of their range, but, consequent on targeted fisheries and in some places intentional eradication, became everywhere scarce, with recent population recovery in the north-east Atlantic being the result of protective measures initiated in the 1990s. Despite their charismatic nature, some of their most fundamental biological processes including copulation, gestation and birth remain largely unknown, due to their migratory and often deep-water lifestyle. In contrast, the deployment of small-scale archival and satellite tags has revealed the details of both broadscale migratory movements and horizontal and vertical foraging behaviours. Recent genetic studies support evidence suggesting a degree of site fidelity in relation to seasonal feeding grounds, which likely explains why in the past local populations have collapsed following periods of intensive fishing. Other recent research using aerial drones and towed cameras has revealed within loose feeding aggregations elements of social behaviour that may have a courtship function as well as enhance feeding efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauvis Gore
- Marine Conservation International, South Queensferry, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom; Centre for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Ewan Camplisson
- Centre for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom; School of Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, England, United Kingdom
| | - Rupert Ormond
- Marine Conservation International, South Queensferry, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom; Centre for Marine Biodiversity & Biotechnology, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Bezerra WCA, Figueiredo GM, Kozlowsky-Suzuki B. Can we meaningfully estimate the impacts of climate on zooplankton biodiversity? A review on uses and limitations of marine time series. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 195:115515. [PMID: 37716130 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Climate events compromise ecosystems functioning and services. Marine zooplankton play a key role linking primary producers and higher consumers, in the carbon export to deeper regions, and respond quickly to environmental change. We conducted a systematic review to assess the effects of climate on marine zooplankton diversity. We describe the major findings, uses and limitations raised in the literature from worldwide time series ≥5 years. Thirty-five studies were included and only 6 presented extractable data (i.e., those that could be extracted from images) for the most studied group (i.e., copepods). Responses to climate were conflicting, and studies were mostly restricted to the global north, applied richness, alpha- and beta-diversity equally, and had a large number of unresolved taxonomic identification. Standardized open long-term data would meaningfully help unveiling assemblage reorganization and allow meta-analyses to improve our understanding of the effects of climate change and variability on zooplankton biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wellen Cristina Alves Bezerra
- Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Av. Pasteur 458, CEP: 22290-240, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Gisela Mandali Figueiredo
- Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Av. Professor Rodolfo Rocco 211, CCS, Cidade Universitária, CEP: 21941-902, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Betina Kozlowsky-Suzuki
- Departmento de Ecologia e Recursos Marinhos, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Av. Pasteur 458, CEP: 22290-240, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Garzke J, Forster I, Graham C, Costalago D, Hunt BPV. Future climate change-related decreases in food quality may affect juvenile Chinook salmon growth and survival. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 191:106171. [PMID: 37716280 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2023.106171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Global climate change is projected to raise global temperatures by 3.3-5.7 °C by 2100, resulting in changes in species composition, abundance, and nutritional quality of organisms at the base of the marine food web. Predicted increases in prey availability and reductions in prey nutritional quality under climate warming in certain marine systems are expected to impact higher trophic levels, such as fish and humans. There is limited knowledge of the interplay between food quantity and quality under warming, specifically when food availability is high, but quality is low. Here, we conducted an experiment assessing the effects of food quality (fatty acid composition and ratios) on juvenile Chinook salmon's (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) body and nutritional condition, specifically focusing on RNA:DNA ratio, Fulton's K, growth, mortality and their fatty acid composition. Experimental diets represented three different climate change scenarios with 1) a present-day diet (Euphausia pacifica), 2) a control diet (commercial aquaculture diet), and 3) a predicted Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) worst-case scenario diet with low essential fatty acid concentrations (IPCC SSP5-8.5). We tested how growth rates, RNA:DNA ratio, Fulton's K index, fatty acid composition and mortality rates in juvenile Chinook salmon compared across diet treatments. Fatty acids were incorporated into the salmon muscle at varying rates but, on average, reflected dietary concentrations. High dietary concentrations of DHA, EPA and high DHA:EPA ratios, under the control and present-day diets, increased fish growth and condition. In contrast, low concentrations of DHA and EPA and low DHA:EPA ratios in the diets under climate change scenario were not compensated for by increased food quantity. This result highlights the importance of considering food quality when assessing fish response to changing ocean conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Garzke
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, AERL, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Ian Forster
- Pacific Science Enterprise Center, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Dr., West Vancouver, BC V7V 1N6, Canada
| | - Caroline Graham
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, AERL, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - David Costalago
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, AERL, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Brian P V Hunt
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, AERL, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2020-2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Hakai Institute, PO Box 309, Heriot Bay, BC, V0P 1H0, Canada
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Yu H, Wang T, Skidmore A, Heurich M, Bässler C. How future climate and tree distribution changes shape the biodiversity of macrofungi across Europe. DIVERS DISTRIB 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Haili Yu
- Faculty of Geo‐Information Science and Earth Observation University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands
| | - Tiejun Wang
- Faculty of Geo‐Information Science and Earth Observation University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Skidmore
- Faculty of Geo‐Information Science and Earth Observation University of Twente Enschede The Netherlands
- Department of Earth and Environmental Science Macquarie University Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - Marco Heurich
- Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Wildlife Management University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
- Bavarian Forest National Park Grafenau Germany
- Institute for Forest and Wildlife Management Inland Norway University of Applied Science Koppang Norway
| | - Claus Bässler
- Bavarian Forest National Park Grafenau Germany
- Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Faculty of Biological Sciences Goethe University Frankfurt Frankfurt Germany
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Copepod Assemblages in A Large Arctic Coastal Area: A Baseline Summer Study. DIVERSITY 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/d15010081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
To provide a baseline description of copepod assemblages in the Pechora Sea, an estuarine area with great economical and ecological importance, we conducted a survey during the summer season. A total of 24 copepod taxa were identified in the study, with Acartia longiremis, Calanus finmarchicus, Centropages hamatus, Copepoda nauplii, Eurytemora affinis, Oithona similis, Pseudocalanus spp., and Temora longicornis being the most numerous. The high diversity (Shannon index = 2.51 ± 0.06), density (18,720 ± 3376 individuals m−3) and biomass (89 ± 18 mg dry mass m−3) of copepods were revealed. Populations of common small copepod taxa were dominated by the young stages, indicating spawning, while older copepodites prevailed among medium- and large-sized species, showing that their reproduction occurred before our survey. Cluster analysis indicated three groups of stations that mainly differed in the abundance of particular species. There were clear associations between copepod assemblages and environmental variables. Statistical analyses showed significant correlations between copepod abundance and water temperature or sampling depth, while other factors had a lesser influence. Our results suggest a strong effect of local circulation and currents on the spatial pattern of the copepod assemblages in the study area. This study may be useful for future biomonitoring in the south-eastern Barents Sea.
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Roman MR, Pierson JJ. Interactive Effects of Increasing Temperature and Decreasing Oxygen on Coastal Copepods. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2022; 243:171-183. [PMID: 36548979 DOI: 10.1086/722111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe copepods of coastal seas are experiencing warming water temperatures, which increase their oxygen demand. In addition, many coastal seas are also losing oxygen because of deoxygenation due to cultural eutrophication. Warming coastal seas have changed copepod species' composition and biogeographic boundaries and, in many cases, resulted in copepod communities that have shifted in size distribution to smaller species. While increases in ambient water temperatures can explain some of these changes, deoxygenation has also been shown to result in reduced copepod growth rates, reduced size at adulthood, and altered species composition. In this review we focus on the interactive effects of temperature and dissolved oxygen on pelagic copepods, which dominate coastal zooplankton communities. The uniformity in ellipsoidal shape, the lack of external oxygen uptake organs, and the pathway of oxygen uptake through the copepod's integument make calanoid copepods ideal candidates for testing the use of an allometric approach to predict copepod size with increasing water temperatures and decreasing oxygen in coastal seas. Considering oxygen and temperature as a combined and interactive driver in coastal ecosystems will provide a unifying approach for future predictions of coastal copepod communities and their impact on fisheries and biogeochemical cycles. Given the prospect of increased oxygen limitation of copepods in warming seas, increased knowledge of the physiological ecology of present-day copepods in coastal deoxygenated zones can provide insights into the copepod communities that will inhabit a future warmer ocean.
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Woods HA, Moran AL, Atkinson D, Audzijonyte A, Berenbrink M, Borges FO, Burnett KG, Burnett LE, Coates CJ, Collin R, Costa-Paiva EM, Duncan MI, Ern R, Laetz EMJ, Levin LA, Lindmark M, Lucey NM, McCormick LR, Pierson JJ, Rosa R, Roman MR, Sampaio E, Schulte PM, Sperling EA, Walczyńska A, Verberk WCEP. Integrative Approaches to Understanding Organismal Responses to Aquatic Deoxygenation. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2022; 243:85-103. [PMID: 36548975 DOI: 10.1086/722899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
AbstractOxygen bioavailability is declining in aquatic systems worldwide as a result of climate change and other anthropogenic stressors. For aquatic organisms, the consequences are poorly known but are likely to reflect both direct effects of declining oxygen bioavailability and interactions between oxygen and other stressors, including two-warming and acidification-that have received substantial attention in recent decades and that typically accompany oxygen changes. Drawing on the collected papers in this symposium volume ("An Oxygen Perspective on Climate Change"), we outline the causes and consequences of declining oxygen bioavailability. First, we discuss the scope of natural and predicted anthropogenic changes in aquatic oxygen levels. Although modern organisms are the result of long evolutionary histories during which they were exposed to natural oxygen regimes, anthropogenic change is now exposing them to more extreme conditions and novel combinations of low oxygen with other stressors. Second, we identify behavioral and physiological mechanisms that underlie the interactive effects of oxygen with other stressors, and we assess the range of potential organismal responses to oxygen limitation that occur across levels of biological organization and over multiple timescales. We argue that metabolism and energetics provide a powerful and unifying framework for understanding organism-oxygen interactions. Third, we conclude by outlining a set of approaches for maximizing the effectiveness of future work, including focusing on long-term experiments using biologically realistic variation in experimental factors and taking truly cross-disciplinary and integrative approaches to understanding and predicting future effects.
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Zheng Z, Zhuang Y, Chen H, Ge R, Li Y, Liu G. Seasonality shapes community structure and functional group dynamics of zooplankton in Changjiang River estuary and its adjacent waters. DIVERS DISTRIB 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zeqi Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
| | - Yunyun Zhuang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
- Marine Ecology and Environmental Science Laboratory Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Hongju Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
- Marine Ecology and Environmental Science Laboratory Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Ruping Ge
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
| | - Yixuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
| | - Guangxing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education Ocean University of China Qingdao China
- Marine Ecology and Environmental Science Laboratory Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology Qingdao China
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Souissi A, Hwang JS, Souissi S. Reproductive trade-offs of the estuarine copepod Eurytemora affinis under different thermal and haline regimes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20139. [PMID: 34635769 PMCID: PMC8505402 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99703-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Copepod females invest a quantity of resources in their reproduction. Depending on several biotic and abiotic factors and their evolutionary history a trade-off can be commonly observed between producing a large number of smaller offspring or a small number of larger offspring. In this study, a multi-generational approach was applied to determine whether a trade-off between clutch size and egg size existed in the copepod Eurytemora affinis under different controlled conditions of temperature and salinity. This protocol was based on the follow-up of reproductive (Clutch Size 'CS', Egg Diameter 'ED') and morphological (Prosome Length 'PL') traits during several generations. Copepods were acclimated to cold (7 °C) and warm (20 °C) temperatures, and then their reproductive output was tested at the higher temperature of 24 °C. CS and ED were positively correlated to PL, so as a first step linear regressions between each reproductive trait and female PL were performed. The residuals from the regression lines of CS and ED with PL were calculated to remove the effect of female size. When the normalized data (residuals) of CS and ED plotted together a negative relationship between egg size and egg number revealed the existence of a trade-off. Copepod populations initially acclimated to cold temperature are commonly characterized by relatively smaller CS and larger ED. Conversely, warm temperature adapted females produced relatively larger CS and smaller ED. After transfer to a temperature of 24 °C, the ED did not change but the CS showed high variability indicating stressful conditions and no trade-off was observed. These observations suggest that E. affinis is able to modulate its reproduction depending on the encountered temperature. It seems that this copepod species can shift between a K- and an r-strategy in response to colder or warmer conditions. In a late winter-early spring like cold temperature, copepod females seem to invest more on offspring quality by producing relatively larger eggs. This ecological strategy ensures a high recruitment of the spring generation that is responsible for the strength of the maximum population size usually observed in late spring-early summer (May-June). To the contrary, at summer-like temperature, where the population density decreases significantly in the Seine estuary, copepod females seem to switch from K to r strategy by favoring offspring number compared to offspring size. Finally, the use of a higher temperature of 24 °C seems to disrupt the observed reproductive trade-off even after several generations. These results suggest that a switching between K- or r-strategy of E. affinis depends highly on temperature effects. The effect of salinity increase during a summer-like temperature of 20 °C as well as after transfer to 24 °C decreased PL and CS but the ED did not change significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anissa Souissi
- grid.503422.20000 0001 2242 6780Université de Lille, CNRS, Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale, IRD, UMR 8187 LOG, Laboratoire d’Océanologie Et de Géosciences, Station Marine de Wimereux, 59000 Lille, France ,Univ. Littoral Côte d’Opale, UMR 1158 BioEcoAgro, TERRA Viollette, USC Anses, INRAe, Univ. Lille, Univ. Artois, Univ. Picardie Jules Verne, Univ. Liège, 62200 Yncréa, Boulogne-sur-Mer France
| | - Jiang-Shiou Hwang
- grid.260664.00000 0001 0313 3026Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University, 20224 Keelung, Taiwan ,grid.260664.00000 0001 0313 3026Center of Excellence for Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 20224 Taiwan ,grid.260664.00000 0001 0313 3026Center of Excellence for the Oceans, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 20224 Taiwan
| | - Sami Souissi
- grid.503422.20000 0001 2242 6780Université de Lille, CNRS, Université du Littoral Côte d’Opale, IRD, UMR 8187 LOG, Laboratoire d’Océanologie Et de Géosciences, Station Marine de Wimereux, 59000 Lille, France
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Vezzulli L, Martinez-Urtaza J, Stern R. Continuous Plankton Recorder in the omics era: from marine microbiome to global ocean observations. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2021; 73:61-66. [PMID: 34314925 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2021.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
First routinely deployed in 1931 the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) technology has established the most extensive, marine biological sampling programme in the world. With more than 90 years of sampling, over a total of 8 million nautical miles covered and 500 000 curated samples, the CPR survey provides a gold mine of information available to marine researchers. Such information is likely to exponentially increase thanks to new cutting-edge molecular technologies that are beginning to be applied on CPR samples. In this review we aim to address the exciting developments that the genomic revolution is having on CPR applications from the study of marine microbiome to ocean plankton communities leading to a new 'digital era' of the global ocean CPR observation programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Vezzulli
- Department of Earth, Environmental and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genoa, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
| | - Jaime Martinez-Urtaza
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Facultat de Biociéncies, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rowena Stern
- The Marine Biological Association the Laboratory, Citadel Hill Plymouth, PL1 2PB Devon, UK
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