1
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Kusakabe M, Sugasawa K. Fluorescence-microscopy-based assay assessing regulatory mechanisms of global genome nucleotide excision repair in cultured cells. STAR Protoc 2023; 4:102378. [PMID: 37352107 PMCID: PMC10320318 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023] Open
Abstract
It remains uncertain how global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER) efficiently removes various helix distorting DNA lesions in the cell nucleus. Here, we present a protocol to assess the contribution of factors of interest to GG-NER using two types of fluorescence-microscopy-based techniques. First, we describe steps for analyzing the localization of the factors upon local ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. We then detail the second technique, which quantifies the removal of UV-induced photolesions combined with lesion-specific antibodies and program-based image analysis. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Kusakabe et al.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Kusakabe
- Biosignal Research Center and Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Kaoru Sugasawa
- Biosignal Research Center and Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe 657-8501, Japan.
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2
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Maritz C, Khaleghi R, Yancoskie MN, Diethelm S, Brülisauer S, Ferreira NS, Jiang Y, Sturla SJ, Naegeli H. ASH1L-MRG15 methyltransferase deposits H3K4me3 and FACT for damage verification in nucleotide excision repair. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3892. [PMID: 37393406 PMCID: PMC10314917 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39635-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023] Open
Abstract
To recognize DNA adducts, nucleotide excision repair (NER) deploys the XPC sensor, which detects damage-induced helical distortions, followed by engagement of TFIIH for lesion verification. Accessory players ensure that this factor handover takes place in chromatin where DNA is tightly wrapped around histones. Here, we describe how the histone methyltransferase ASH1L, once activated by MRG15, helps XPC and TFIIH to navigate through chromatin and induce global-genome NER hotspots. Upon UV irradiation, ASH1L adds H3K4me3 all over the genome (except in active gene promoters), thus priming chromatin for XPC relocations from native to damaged DNA. The ASH1L-MRG15 complex further recruits the histone chaperone FACT to DNA lesions. In the absence of ASH1L, MRG15 or FACT, XPC is misplaced and persists on damaged DNA without being able to deliver the lesions to TFIIH. We conclude that ASH1L-MRG15 makes damage verifiable by the NER machinery through the sequential deposition of H3K4me3 and FACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina Maritz
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Reihaneh Khaleghi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michelle N Yancoskie
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Diethelm
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Brülisauer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Natalia Santos Ferreira
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yang Jiang
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Shana J Sturla
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hanspeter Naegeli
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Yancoskie MN, Maritz C, van Eijk P, Reed SH, Naegeli H. To incise or not and where: SET-domain methyltransferases know. Trends Biochem Sci 2023; 48:321-330. [PMID: 36357311 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2022.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The concept of the histone code posits that histone modifications regulate gene functions once interpreted by epigenetic readers. A well-studied case is trimethylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 (H3K4me3), which is enriched at gene promoters. However, H3K4me3 marks are not needed for the expression of most genes, suggesting extra roles, such as influencing the 3D genome architecture. Here, we highlight an intriguing analogy between the H3K4me3-dependent induction of double-strand breaks in several recombination events and the impact of this same mark on DNA incisions for the repair of bulky lesions. We propose that Su(var)3-9, Enhancer-of-zeste and Trithorax (SET)-domain methyltransferases generate H3K4me3 to guide nucleases into chromatin spaces, the favorable accessibility of which ensures that DNA break intermediates are readily processed, thereby safeguarding genome stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle N Yancoskie
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Corina Maritz
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patrick van Eijk
- Institute of Cancer and Genetics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Simon H Reed
- Institute of Cancer and Genetics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Hanspeter Naegeli
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland.
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4
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Nasrallah NA, Wiese BM, Sears CR. Xeroderma Pigmentosum Complementation Group C (XPC): Emerging Roles in Non-Dermatologic Malignancies. Front Oncol 2022; 12:846965. [PMID: 35530314 PMCID: PMC9069926 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.846965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Xeroderma pigmentosum complementation group C (XPC) is a DNA damage recognition protein essential for initiation of global-genomic nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER). Humans carrying germline mutations in the XPC gene exhibit strong susceptibility to skin cancer due to defective removal via GG-NER of genotoxic, solar UV-induced dipyrimidine photoproducts. However, XPC is increasingly recognized as important for protection against non-dermatologic cancers, not only through its role in GG-NER, but also by participating in other DNA repair pathways, in the DNA damage response and in transcriptional regulation. Additionally, XPC expression levels and polymorphisms likely impact development and may serve as predictive and therapeutic biomarkers in a number of these non-dermatologic cancers. Here we review the existing literature, focusing on the role of XPC in non-dermatologic cancer development, progression, and treatment response, and highlight possible future applications of XPC as a prognostic and therapeutic biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawar Al Nasrallah
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Occupational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Benjamin M. Wiese
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Occupational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Catherine R. Sears
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Occupational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Richard L. Roudebush Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Indianapolis, IN, United States
- *Correspondence: Catherine R. Sears,
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5
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Li W, Jones K, Burke TJ, Hossain MA, Lariscy L. Epigenetic Regulation of Nucleotide Excision Repair. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:847051. [PMID: 35465333 PMCID: PMC9023881 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.847051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic DNA is constantly attacked by a plethora of DNA damaging agents both from endogenous and exogenous sources. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is the most versatile repair pathway that recognizes and removes a wide range of bulky and/or helix-distorting DNA lesions. Even though the molecular mechanism of NER is well studied through in vitro system, the NER process inside the cell is more complicated because the genomic DNA in eukaryotes is tightly packaged into chromosomes and compacted into a nucleus. Epigenetic modifications regulate gene activity and expression without changing the DNA sequence. The dynamics of epigenetic regulation play a crucial role during the in vivo NER process. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the epigenetic regulation of NER.
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6
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Kusakabe M, Kakumu E, Kurihara F, Tsuchida K, Maeda T, Tada H, Kusao K, Kato A, Yasuda T, Matsuda T, Nakao M, Yokoi M, Sakai W, Sugasawa K. Histone deacetylation regulates nucleotide excision repair through an interaction with the XPC protein. iScience 2022; 25:104040. [PMID: 35330687 PMCID: PMC8938288 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The XPC protein complex plays a central role in DNA lesion recognition for global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER). Lesion recognition can be accomplished in either a UV-DDB-dependent or -independent manner; however, it is unclear how these sub-pathways are regulated in chromatin. Here, we show that histone deacetylases 1 and 2 facilitate UV-DDB-independent recruitment of XPC to DNA damage by inducing histone deacetylation. XPC localizes to hypoacetylated chromatin domains in a DNA damage-independent manner, mediated by its structurally disordered middle (M) region. The M region interacts directly with the N-terminal tail of histone H3, an interaction compromised by H3 acetylation. Although the M region is dispensable for in vitro NER, it promotes DNA damage removal by GG-NER in vivo, particularly in the absence of UV-DDB. We propose that histone deacetylation around DNA damage facilitates the recruitment of XPC through the M region, contributing to efficient lesion recognition and initiation of GG-NER. Histone deacetylation by HDAC1/2 promotes the DNA lesion recognition by XPC The HDAC1/2 activators, MTA proteins, also promote the recruitment of XPC XPC tends to localize in hypoacetylated chromatin independently of DNA damage Disordered middle region of XPC interacts with histone H3 tail and promotes GG-NER
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7
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Apelt K, Lans H, Schärer OD, Luijsterburg MS. Nucleotide excision repair leaves a mark on chromatin: DNA damage detection in nucleosomes. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:7925-7942. [PMID: 34731255 PMCID: PMC8629891 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03984-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER) eliminates a broad spectrum of DNA lesions from genomic DNA. Genomic DNA is tightly wrapped around histones creating a barrier for DNA repair proteins to access DNA lesions buried in nucleosomal DNA. The DNA-damage sensors XPC and DDB2 recognize DNA lesions in nucleosomal DNA and initiate repair. The emerging view is that a tight interplay between XPC and DDB2 is regulated by post-translational modifications on the damage sensors themselves as well as on chromatin containing DNA lesions. The choreography between XPC and DDB2, their interconnection with post-translational modifications such as ubiquitylation, SUMOylation, methylation, poly(ADP-ribos)ylation, acetylation, and the functional links with chromatin remodelling activities regulate not only the initial recognition of DNA lesions in nucleosomes, but also the downstream recruitment and necessary displacement of GG-NER factors as repair progresses. In this review, we highlight how nucleotide excision repair leaves a mark on chromatin to enable DNA damage detection in nucleosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Apelt
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hannes Lans
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Orlando D Schärer
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.,Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Martijn S Luijsterburg
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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8
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Wong CT, Oh DH. Vitamin D Receptor Promotes Global Nucleotide Excision Repair by Facilitating XPC Dissociation from Damaged DNA. J Invest Dermatol 2021; 141:1656-1663. [PMID: 33524369 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2020.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin D receptor (VDR) is important for normal DNA repair, although the mechanism by which it acts is unclear. After focal UV irradiation to create subnuclear spots of DNA damage, epidermal keratinocytes from VDR-null mice as well as human epidermal keratinocytes depleted of VDR with small interfering RNA removed pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproducts more slowly than control cells. Costaining with antibodies to XPC, the DNA damage recognition sensor that initiates nucleotide excision repair, showed that XPC rapidly accumulated at spots of damage and gradually faded in control human keratinocytes. In VDR-depleted keratinocytes, XPC associated with DNA damage with comparable efficiency; however, XPC's dissociation dynamics were altered so that significantly more XPC was bound and retained over time than in control cells. The XPF endonuclease, which acts subsequently in nucleotide excision repair, bound and dissociated with comparable kinetics in control and VDR-depleted cells, but the extent of binding was reduced in the latter. These results as well as kinetic modeling of the data suggest that VDR's importance in the repair of UV-induced DNA damage is mediated in part by its ability to facilitate the dissociation of XPC from damaged DNA for the normal recruitment and assembly of other repair proteins to proceed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian T Wong
- Dermatology Research Unit, San Francisco VA Health Care System, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Dennis H Oh
- Dermatology Research Unit, San Francisco VA Health Care System, San Francisco, California, USA; Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.
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9
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Control of the chromatin response to DNA damage: Histone proteins pull the strings. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 113:75-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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10
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Ijaz A, Shah K, Aziz A, Rehman FU, Ali Y, Tareen AM, Khan K, Ayub M, Wali A. Novel Frameshift Mutations in XPC Gene Underlie Xeroderma Pigmentosum in Pakistani Families. Indian J Dermatol 2021; 66:220-222. [PMID: 34188291 PMCID: PMC8208272 DOI: 10.4103/ijd.ijd_63_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ambreen Ijaz
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan. E-mail: .,Department of Zoology, SBK Women's University, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Khadim Shah
- Department of Biotechnology, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbotabbad Campus, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Aziz
- Department of Computer Sciences and Bioinformatics, Khushal Khan Khattak University, Karak, Pakistan
| | - Fazal U Rehman
- Department of Microbiology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Yasir Ali
- Department of Computer Sciences and Bioinformatics, Khushal Khan Khattak University, Karak, Pakistan
| | - Abdul M Tareen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Kafaitullah Khan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ayub
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Wali
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan. E-mail:
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11
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Nishimoto K, Niida H, Uchida C, Ohhata T, Kitagawa K, Motegi A, Suda T, Kitagawa M. HDAC3 Is Required for XPC Recruitment and Nucleotide Excision Repair of DNA Damage Induced by UV Irradiation. Mol Cancer Res 2020; 18:1367-1378. [DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-20-0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Gsell C, Richly H, Coin F, Naegeli H. A chromatin scaffold for DNA damage recognition: how histone methyltransferases prime nucleosomes for repair of ultraviolet light-induced lesions. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:1652-1668. [PMID: 31930303 PMCID: PMC7038933 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz1229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The excision of mutagenic DNA adducts by the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is essential for genome stability, which is key to avoiding genetic diseases, premature aging, cancer and neurologic disorders. Due to the need to process an extraordinarily high damage density embedded in the nucleosome landscape of chromatin, NER activity provides a unique functional caliper to understand how histone modifiers modulate DNA damage responses. At least three distinct lysine methyltransferases (KMTs) targeting histones have been shown to facilitate the detection of ultraviolet (UV) light-induced DNA lesions in the difficult to access DNA wrapped around histones in nucleosomes. By methylating core histones, these KMTs generate docking sites for DNA damage recognition factors before the chromatin structure is ultimately relaxed and the offending lesions are effectively excised. In view of their function in priming nucleosomes for DNA repair, mutations of genes coding for these KMTs are expected to cause the accumulation of DNA damage promoting cancer and other chronic diseases. Research on the question of how KMTs modulate DNA repair might pave the way to the development of pharmacologic agents for novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina Gsell
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Holger Richly
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma, Department of Molecular Biology, Birkendorfer Str. 65, 88397 Biberach an der Riß, Germany
| | - Frédéric Coin
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Equipe Labélisée Ligue contre le Cancer, Illkirch Cedex, Strasbourg, France
| | - Hanspeter Naegeli
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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13
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Cai Y, Geacintov NE, Broyde S. Variable impact of conformationally distinct DNA lesions on nucleosome structure and dynamics: Implications for nucleotide excision repair. DNA Repair (Amst) 2019; 87:102768. [PMID: 32018112 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.102768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The packaging of DNA in nucleosomes presents a barrier for biological transactions including replication, transcription and repair. However, despite years of research, how the DNA is freed from the histone proteins and thereby allows the molecular machines to access the DNA remains poorly understood. We are interested in global genomic nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER). It is established that the histones are obstacles to this process, and DNA lesions are repaired less efficiently in nucleosomes than in free DNA. In the present study, we utilized molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate the nature of the distortions and dynamics imposed in the nucleosome by a set of three structually different lesions that vary in GG-NER efficiencies in free DNA, and in nucleosomes [Shafirovich, Geacintov, et. al, 2019]. Two of these are bulky lesions derived from metabolic activation of the environmental carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene, the 10R (+)-cis-anti-B[a]P-N2-dG and the stereoisomeric 10S (+)-trans-anti-B[a]P-N2-dG, which respectively adopt base-displaced/intercalated and minor groove-aligned conformations in DNA. The third is a non-bulky lesion, the 5'R-8-cyclo-2'-deoxyguanosine cross-link, produced by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species; cyclopurine lesions are highly mutagenic. These adducts are placed near the dyad axis, and rotationally with the lesion-containing strand facing towards or away from the histones. While each lesion has distinct conformational characteristics that are retained in the nucleosome, a spectrum of structural and dynamic disturbances, from slight to substantial, are displayed that depend on the lesion's structure and position in the nucleosome. We hypothesize that these intrinsic structural and dynamic distinctions provide different signals to initiate the cascade of chromatin-opening processes, including acetylation and other post translational modifications, remodeling by ATP-dependent complexes and spontaneous unwrapping that regulate the rate of access to the lesion; this may translate ultimately into varying GG-NER efficiencies, including repair resistance when signals for access are too weak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Cai
- Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Nicholas E Geacintov
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Suse Broyde
- Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
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14
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Rechkunova NI, Maltseva EA, Lavrik OI. Post-translational Modifications of Nucleotide Excision Repair Proteins and Their Role in the DNA Repair. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2019; 84:1008-1020. [PMID: 31693460 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297919090037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is one of the major DNA repair pathways aimed at maintaining genome stability. Correction of DNA damage by the NER system is a multistage process that proceeds with the formation of multiple DNA-protein and protein-protein intermediate complexes and requires precise coordination and regulation. NER proteins undergo post-translational modifications, such as ubiquitination, sumoylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. These modifications affect the interaction of NER factors with DNA and other proteins and thus regulate either their recruitment into the complexes or dissociation from these complexes at certain stages of DNA repair, as well as modulate the functional activity of NER proteins and control the process of DNA repair in general. Here, we review the data on the post-translational modifications of NER factors and their effects on DNA repair. Protein poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation catalyzed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 and its impact on NER are discussed in detail, since such analysis has not been done before.
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Affiliation(s)
- N I Rechkunova
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia. .,Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - E A Maltseva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
| | - O I Lavrik
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia.,Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
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15
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Kusakabe M, Onishi Y, Tada H, Kurihara F, Kusao K, Furukawa M, Iwai S, Yokoi M, Sakai W, Sugasawa K. Mechanism and regulation of DNA damage recognition in nucleotide excision repair. Genes Environ 2019; 41:2. [PMID: 30700997 PMCID: PMC6346561 DOI: 10.1186/s41021-019-0119-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a versatile DNA repair pathway, which can remove an extremely broad range of base lesions from the genome. In mammalian global genomic NER, the XPC protein complex initiates the repair reaction by recognizing sites of DNA damage, and this depends on detection of disrupted/destabilized base pairs within the DNA duplex. A model has been proposed that XPC first interacts with unpaired bases and then the XPD ATPase/helicase in concert with XPA verifies the presence of a relevant lesion by scanning a DNA strand in 5′-3′ direction. Such multi-step strategy for damage recognition would contribute to achieve both versatility and accuracy of the NER system at substantially high levels. In addition, recognition of ultraviolet light (UV)-induced DNA photolesions is facilitated by the UV-damaged DNA-binding protein complex (UV-DDB), which not only promotes recruitment of XPC to the damage sites, but also may contribute to remodeling of chromatin structures such that the DNA lesions gain access to XPC and the following repair proteins. Even in the absence of UV-DDB, however, certain types of histone modifications and/or chromatin remodeling could occur, which eventually enable XPC to find sites with DNA lesions. Exploration of novel factors involved in regulation of the DNA damage recognition process is now ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Kusakabe
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Yuki Onishi
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Haruto Tada
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Fumika Kurihara
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Kanako Kusao
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,3Faculty of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Mari Furukawa
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Shigenori Iwai
- 4Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531 Japan
| | - Masayuki Yokoi
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,3Faculty of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Wataru Sakai
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,3Faculty of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
| | - Kaoru Sugasawa
- 1Biosignal Research Center, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,2Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan.,3Faculty of Science, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai-cho, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657-8501 Japan
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16
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Sugasawa K. Mechanism and regulation of DNA damage recognition in mammalian nucleotide excision repair. DNA Repair (Amst) 2019; 45:99-138. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.enz.2019.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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17
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Ijaz A, Basit S, Gul A, Batool L, Hussain A, Afzal S, Ramzan K, Ahmad J, Wali A. XPC gene mutations in families with xeroderma pigmentosum from Pakistan; prevalent founder effect. Congenit Anom (Kyoto) 2019; 59:18-21. [PMID: 29569758 DOI: 10.1111/cga.12281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2017] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a rare autosomal recessive skin disorder characterized by hyperpigmentation, premature skin aging, ocular and cutaneous photosensitivity, and increased risk of skin carcinoma. We investigated seven consanguineous XP families with nine patients from Pakistan. All the Patients exhibited typical clinical symptoms of XP since first year of life. Whole genome SNP genotyping identified a 14 Mb autozygous region segregating with the disease phenotype on chromosome 3p25.1. DNA sequencing of XPC gene revealed a founder homozygous splice site mutation (c.2251-1G>C) in patients from six families (A-F) and a homozygous nonsense mutation (c.1399C>T; p.Gln467*) in patients of family G. This is the first report of XPC mutations, underlying XP phenotype, in Pakistani population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambreen Ijaz
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan.,Department of Zoology, Sardar Bahadur Khan Women's University, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Sulman Basit
- Center for Genetics and Inherited Diseases, Taibah University Al Madinah Al Munawarah, Medina, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ajab Gul
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Lilas Batool
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Abrar Hussain
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Sibtain Afzal
- Department of Pediatrics, Asthma Research Chair and Prince Naif Center for Immunology Research, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khushnooda Ramzan
- Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jamil Ahmad
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Wali
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences & Informatics, BUITEMS, Quetta, Pakistan
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18
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Mu H, Geacintov NE, Broyde S, Yeo JE, Schärer OD. Molecular basis for damage recognition and verification by XPC-RAD23B and TFIIH in nucleotide excision repair. DNA Repair (Amst) 2018; 71:33-42. [PMID: 30174301 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER) is the main pathway for the removal of bulky lesions from DNA and is characterized by an extraordinarily wide substrate specificity. Remarkably, the efficiency of lesion removal varies dramatically and certain lesions escape repair altogether and are therefore associated with high levels of mutagenicity. Central to the multistep mechanism of damage recognition in NER is the sensing of lesion-induced thermodynamic and structural alterations of DNA by the XPC-RAD23B protein and the verification of the damage by the transcription/repair factor TFIIH. Additional factors contribute to the process: UV-DDB, for the recognition of certain UV-induced lesions in particular in the context of chromatin, while the XPA protein is believed to have a role in damage verification and NER complex assembly. Here we consider the molecular mechanisms that determine repair efficiency in GG-NER based on recent structural, computational, biochemical, cellular and single molecule studies of XPC-RAD23B and its yeast ortholog Rad4. We discuss how the actions of XPC-RAD23B are integrated with those of other NER proteins and, based on recent high-resolution structures of TFIIH, present a structural model of how XPC-RAD23B and TFIIH cooperate in damage recognition and verification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Mu
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | | | - Suse Broyde
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA
| | - Jung-Eun Yeo
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Orlando D Schärer
- Center for Genomic Integrity, Institute for Basic Science, Ulsan, Republic of Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
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19
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Inchiosa MA. Anti-tumor activity of phenoxybenzamine and its inhibition of histone deacetylases. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198514. [PMID: 29897996 PMCID: PMC5999115 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The principal finding from this study was the recognition that the α-adrenergic antagonist, phenoxybenzamine, possesses histone deacetylase inhibitory activity. Phenoxybenzamine is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of hypertensive crises associated with tumors of the adrenal medulla, pheochromocytomas. It has several "off label" indications relative to its capacity to relax vascular smooth muscle and smooth muscle of the urogenital tract. The drug also has a long history of apparent efficacy in ameliorating, and perhaps reversing, the severe symptoms of neuropathic pain syndromes. Our interest in this feature of the drug relates to the fact that certain types of neuropathic pain, in particular complex regional pain syndrome, demonstrate a proliferative nature, with the capacity to spread from an injured limb, for example, to a non-injured limb and perhaps to essentially the entire body. Sensory neuronal sprouting in the spinal cord has been observed under conditions where there is a high sensory input from painful stimuli. Searches of gene expression signatures in the BroadBuild02 Molecular Signature Database using their connectivity map software suggested that phenoxybenzamine may have histone deacetylase inhibitory activity. Studies by others have reported inhibitory effects of phenoxybenzamine on growth, invasion and migration of human tumor cell cultures and, in one study, inhibition of tumor expansion in animal experiments. Inhibitory effects on human tumor cell cultures are also reported in the present study. Phenoxybenzamine was also found to have histone deacetylase inhibitory activity; histone deacetylase isoforms 5, 6, and 9 were the most sensitive to inhibition by phenoxybenzamine. The importance of elevated levels of these isoforms as biomarkers of poor prognosis in human malignant disease, and the recognized suppression of tumor growth that may accrue from their inhibition, opens consideration of possible translation of phenoxybenzamine to new clinical applications. This might be facilitated by the fact that phenoxybenzamine is already an approved drug entity. There appears to be no previous report of the activity of phenoxybenzamine as a histone deacetylase inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario A. Inchiosa
- Departments of Pharmacology and Anesthesiology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, United States of America
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20
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Cai Y, Fu I, Geacintov NE, Zhang Y, Broyde S. Synergistic effects of H3 and H4 nucleosome tails on structure and dynamics of a lesion-containing DNA: Binding of a displaced lesion partner base to the H3 tail for GG-NER recognition. DNA Repair (Amst) 2018; 65:73-78. [PMID: 29631253 PMCID: PMC5911426 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
How DNA lesions in nucleosomes are recognized for global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER) remains poorly understood, and the roles that histone tails may play remains to be established. Histone H3 and H4 N-terminal tails are of particular interest as their acetylation states are important in regulating nucleosomal functions in transcription, replication and repair. In particular the H3 tail has been the focus of recent attention as a site for the interaction with XPC, the GG-NER lesion recognition factor. Here we have investigated how the structure and dynamics of the DNA lesion cis-B[a]P-dG, derived from the environmental carcinogen benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), is impacted by the presence of flanking H3 and H4 tails. This lesion is well-repaired by GG-NER, and adopts a base-displaced/intercalated conformation in which the lesion partner C is displaced into the major groove. We used molecular dynamics simulations to obtain structural and dynamic characterizations for this lesion positioned in nucleosomal DNA so that it is bracketed by the H3 and H4 tails. The H4 tail was studied in unacetylated and acetylated states, while the H3 tail was unacetylated, its state when it binds XPC (Kakumu, Nakanishi et al., 2017). Our results reveal that upon acetylation, the H4 tail is released from the DNA surface; the H3 tail then forms a pocket that induces flipping and capture of the displaced lesion partner base C. This reveals synergistic effects of the behavior of the two tails. We hypothesize that the dual capability of the H3 tail to sense the displaced lesion partner base and to bind XPC could foster recognition of this lesion by XPC for initiation of GG-NER in nucleosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Cai
- Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Iwen Fu
- Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Nicholas E Geacintov
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Yingkai Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA; NYU-ECNU Center for Computational Chemistry at NYU Shanghai, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Suse Broyde
- Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
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21
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Zhu B, Chen S, Wang H, Yin C, Han C, Peng C, Liu Z, Wan L, Zhang X, Zhang J, Lian CG, Ma P, Xu ZX, Prince S, Wang T, Gao X, Shi Y, Liu D, Liu M, Wei W, Wei Z, Pan J, Wang Y, Xuan Z, Hess J, Hayward NK, Goding CR, Chen X, Zhou J, Cui R. The protective role of DOT1L in UV-induced melanomagenesis. Nat Commun 2018; 9:259. [PMID: 29343685 PMCID: PMC5772495 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-02687-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The DOT1L histone H3 lysine 79 (H3K79) methyltransferase plays an oncogenic role in MLL-rearranged leukemogenesis. Here, we demonstrate that, in contrast to MLL-rearranged leukemia, DOT1L plays a protective role in ultraviolet radiation (UVR)-induced melanoma development. Specifically, the DOT1L gene is located in a frequently deleted region and undergoes somatic mutation in human melanoma. Specific mutations functionally compromise DOT1L methyltransferase enzyme activity leading to reduced H3K79 methylation. Importantly, in the absence of DOT1L, UVR-induced DNA damage is inefficiently repaired, so that DOT1L loss promotes melanoma development in mice after exposure to UVR. Mechanistically, DOT1L facilitates DNA damage repair, with DOT1L-methylated H3K79 involvement in binding and recruiting XPC to the DNA damage site for nucleotide excision repair (NER). This study indicates that DOT1L plays a protective role in UVR-induced melanomagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, 250014, Jinan, China
| | - Shuyang Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Department of Dermatology & China Hunan key Laboratory of Skin Cancer and Psoriasis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Hongshen Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Chengqian Yin
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Institute of Life Science, Jiangsu University, 212013, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Changpeng Han
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.,Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Cong Peng
- Department of Dermatology & China Hunan key Laboratory of Skin Cancer and Psoriasis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Zhaoqian Liu
- Department of Dermatology & China Hunan key Laboratory of Skin Cancer and Psoriasis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China
| | - Lixin Wan
- Department of Molecular Oncology, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Xiaoyang Zhang
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Jie Zhang
- Department of Computer Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Christine G Lian
- Department of Pathology, The Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 221 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Peilin Ma
- Department of Pathology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 340 West 10th Street, Fairbanks 6200, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Zhi-Xiang Xu
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA
| | - Sharon Prince
- Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7700, South Africa
| | - Tao Wang
- Tianjin State Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 300193, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiumei Gao
- Tianjin State Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 300193, Tianjin, China
| | - Yujiang Shi
- Department of Medicine, Endocrinology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Dali Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60660, USA
| | - Min Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, 250014, Jinan, China
| | - Wenyi Wei
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Zhi Wei
- Department of Computer Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - Jingxuan Pan
- Cancer Pharmacology Research Institute, Jinan University, 510632, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongjun Wang
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 201203, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenyu Xuan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Systems Biology, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Jay Hess
- Department of Pathology, Indiana University School of Medicine, 340 West 10th Street, Fairbanks 6200, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - Nicholas K Hayward
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane City, QLD, 4006, Australia
| | - Colin R Goding
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, University of Oxford, Headington, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Xiang Chen
- Department of Dermatology & China Hunan key Laboratory of Skin Cancer and Psoriasis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, China.
| | - Jun Zhou
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, 250014, Jinan, China.
| | - Rutao Cui
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA.
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