Isolation of peptides from a novel brewers spent grain protein isolate with potential to modulate glycaemic response

In vitro strategies to understand the impact of oral intake on the bioavailability and bioactivity of peptides from brewing by-products

Bioactive peptides from brewer's spent grain (BSG) and brewer's spent yeast (BSY), two by-products of the brewing industry, have great potential as functional food ingredients, dietary supplements or nutraceuticals to reduce the risk of numerous pathological conditions. Nevertheless, the oral administration of these peptides poses great challenges since peptides must undergo gastrointestinal digestion, intestinal absorption and hepatic metabolism, which can affect their bioavailability and, therefore, the expected outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of the potential impact of the oral route on the bioactivity of BSG/BSY peptides as assessed by in vitro assays and identifies research gaps that require novel approaches/methodologies. The data collected indicate that in addition to the significant influence of gastrointestinal digestion, intestinal absorption and hepatic metabolism also have a major impact on the bioactivity of brewing peptides. The major gap identified was the insufficient evidence regarding hepatic metabolism, which points for the need of employing in vitro assays in this research field to provide such clarification. Thus, to reach the market, the impact of the oral route on the bioactivities of BSG/BSY peptides must be properly studied in vitro to allow adequate/effective administration (dosage/frequency) with a beneficial impact on the population health.

Unlocking the Potential of Brewers' Spent Grain: A Sustainable Model to Use Beer for Better Outcome in Chronic Kidney Disease

The rising global incidence of chronic inflammatory diseases calls for innovative and sustainable medical solutions. Brewers' spent grain (BSG), a byproduct of beer production, presents a unique opportunity in this regard. This review explores the multifaceted health benefits of BSG, with a focus on managing chronic kidney disease (CKD). BSG is identified as a potent prebiotic with potential as a therapeutic agent in CKD. We emphasize the role of gut dysbiosis in CKD and discuss how BSG could help mitigate metabolic derangements resulting from dysbiosis and CKD. Fermentation of BSG further enhances its positive impact on gut health. Incorporating fermented BSG as a key component in preventive health care could promote a more sustainable and healthier future. By optimizing the use of this typically discarded byproduct, we can align proactive health-care strategies with responsible resource management, benefiting both people and the environment.

Recent Progress in Distiller's Grains: Chemical Compositions and Biological Activities

Distiller's grains (DGs) are solid mixtures that remain after the production of alcoholic beverages. A large amount of DGs is produced each year during the brewing process. Currently, they are mostly used as a feedstock or substrate in the feed industry. However, the lack of a comprehensive understanding of the chemical composition of DGs is a major constraint on their further development and application for high-value-added usages. Some studies were published on the bioactive constituents of DGs in several different types of journals. Data were therefore collated to provide a comprehensive overview of these natural products. DGs are rich in phenols, phytosterols, and fatty acids, in addition to general lipid and protein constituents. These compounds and their related extracts possess diverse biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-hyperglycaemic effects. We hope that this review will provide research incentives for the further development and utilisation of DGs to develop high-value-added products.

Microencapsulated bioactive peptides from brewer's spent grain promotes antihypertensive and antidiabetogenic effects on a hypertensive and insulin-resistant rat model

The effects of microcapsules containing brewer's spent grain (BSG) peptides were evaluated on a hypertensive/insulin-resistant rat model induced by a sucrose-rich diet (SRD) administration. Animals received for 100 days the control diet (CD), SRD, and CD and SRD diets supplemented with microencapsulated peptides (CD-P and SRD-P). During the experimental period, blood pressure was monitored. Glycemia, tissue glycogen content, nitric oxide, and the activity of enzymes related to hypertensive and diabetogenic mechanisms were determined. The consumption of SRD caused hypertensive and hyperglycemic effects compared to CD. However, the SRD-P group presented lower systolic pressure at the middle of ingestion, achieving similar values than the CD. The SRD-P rats decreased all enzymes' activities compared to the SRD reaching the values of CD, except for those of α-amylase in cecal content and DPP-IV in serum. It was possible to corroborate potential antihypertensive and antidiabetogenic in vivo effects of the microencapsulated BSG peptides. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is the main waste obtained from brewing industry. Bioactive peptides obtained after an enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins with in vitro antihypertensive and antidiabetogenic activity have been described. However, to corroborate the action of these bioactive peptides, in vivo studies are necessary. In the present work, microcapsules containing bioactive peptides from BSG were administered on the rat model with induced hypertension and insulin-resistance, corroborating an in vivo antihypertensive and antidiabetogenic effects by inhibition of enzymes related with blood pressure regulation and glucose metabolism. This work demonstrated that microcapsules of BSG peptides could be included into functional foods formulations, or used as dietary supplement for improving health and the prevention of non-communicable diseases, adding value to the brewing process by-product.

Health Benefits of Cereal Grain- and Pulse-Derived Proteins

Pulses and whole grains are considered staple foods that provide a significant amount of calories, fibre and protein, making them key food sources in a nutritionally balanced diet. Additionally, pulses and whole grains contain many bioactive compounds such as dietary fibre, resistant starch, phenolic compounds and mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids that are known to combat chronic disease. Notably, recent research has demonstrated that protein derived from pulse and whole grain sources contains bioactive peptides that also possess disease-fighting properties. Mechanisms of action include inhibition or alteration of enzyme activities, vasodilatation, modulation of lipid metabolism and gut microbiome and oxidative stress reduction. Consumer demand for plant-based proteins has skyrocketed primarily based on the perceived health benefits and lower carbon footprint of consuming foods from plant sources versus animal. Therefore, more research should be invested in discovering the health-promoting effects that pulse and whole grain proteins have to offer.

A comprehensive review on the glucoregulatory properties of food-derived bioactive peptides

Diabetes mellitus, a group of metabolic disorders characterized by persistent hyperglycemia, affects millions of people worldwide and is on the rise. Dietary proteins, from a wide range of food sources, are rich in bioactive peptides with antidiabetic properties. Notable examples include AGFAGDDAPR, a black tea-derived peptide, VRIRLLQRFNKRS, a β-conglycinin-derived peptide, and milk-derived peptide VPP, which have shown antidiabetic effects in diabetic rodent models through variety of pathways including improving beta-cells function, suppression of alpha-cells proliferation, inhibiting food intake, increasing portal cholecystokinin concentration, enhancing insulin signaling and glucose uptake, and ameliorating adipose tissue inflammation. Despite the immense research on glucoregulatory properties of bioactive peptides, incorporation of these bioactive peptides in functional foods or nutraceuticals is widely limited due to the existence of several challenges in the field of peptide research and commercialization. Ongoing research in this field, however, is fundamental to pave the road for this purpose.

Effect of Protease Type and Peptide Size on the In Vitro Antioxidant, Antihypertensive and Anti-Diabetic Activities of Eggplant Leaf Protein Hydrolysates

Solanum macrocarpon (eggplant) leaf protein isolate (ELI) was hydrolyzed using four different enzymes to produce hydrolysates from alcalase (AH), chymotrypsin (CH) pepsin (PH) and trypsin (TH). CH had an overall stronger antioxidant property and was separated using ultrafiltration membranes into <1, 1–3 and 3–5 kDa peptide fractions. Gel-permeation chromatography confirmed conversion of the ELI (average of 22 kDa) into protein hydrolysates that contained smaller peptides (<6 kDa). A total of 23 peptides consisting of tri and tetrapeptides were identified from the CH, which is a wider spectrum when compared to seven for AH and four each for TH and PH. CH exhibited stronger scavenging activities against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals. CH and TH exhibited the strongest inhibitions against angiotensin-converting enzyme. In contrast, AH was the strongest inhibitor of α-amylase while AH and PH had strong inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase when compared with other hydrolysates. Ultrafiltration fractionation produced peptides that were stronger (p < 0.05) scavengers of DPPH, and hydroxyl radicals, in addition to better metal-chelating and enzyme inhibition agents. The study concluded that the eggplant protein hydrolysates and the UF fractions may find applications in tackling oxidative stress-related diseases and conditions involving excessive activities of the metabolic enzymes.

Brewers' spent grain in food systems: Processing and final products quality as a function of fiber modification treatment

The nutritional properties of brewers' spent grain (BSG) have been widely studied, considering its potential as a healthy food ingredient. Because of its fiber composition (amount and ratio), however, adding BSG into the food matrix to bring about changes in physical properties has been believed to impact negatively on the acceptability of the final products' properties, particularly color and texture. Fiber modification can enhance the quality of fiber and can be applied to BSG. Although it appears challenging, modifying fiber composition requires further study, particularly if the acceptability of the final products is to be improved. Furthermore, the level of fiber degradation during the modification treatment needs to be examined to meet the increased demand for BSG in final food products. This concise synthesis provides a new perspective for increasing the use of BSG as a food ingredient that is characterized by high nutrition and acceptability.

A Review on Health-Promoting, Biological, and Functional Aspects of Bioactive Peptides in Food Applications

Food-derived bioactive peptides are being used as important functional ingredients for health-promoting foods and nutraceuticals in recent times in order to prevent and manage several diseases thanks to their biological activities. Bioactive peptides are specific protein fractions, which show broad applications in cosmetics, food additives, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, and angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory ingredients. These peptides can preserve consumer health by retarding chronic diseases owing to modulation or improvement of the physiological functions of human body. They can also affect functional characteristics of different foods such as dairy products, fermented beverages, and plant and marine proteins. This manuscript reviews different aspects of bioactive peptides concerning their biological (antihypertensive, antioxidative, antiobesity, and hypocholesterolemic) and functional (water holding capacity, solubility, emulsifying, and foaming) properties. Moreover, the properties of several bioactive peptides extracted from different foods as potential ingredients to formulate health promoting foods are described. Thus, multifunctional properties of bioactive peptides provide the possibility to formulate or develop novel healthy food products.

Prospects of cereal protein-derived bioactive peptides: Sources, bioactivities diversity, and production

Cereals account for a large proportion of the human diet and are an important source of protein. The preparation of cereal protein peptides is a good way to utilize these proteins. Cereal protein peptides have good application potential as antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and anticancer compounds, in lowering blood pressure, controlling blood sugar, and inhibiting thrombosis. This article reviews the literature on the functional properties, mechanisms of action, and applications of cereal protein peptides in the food industry with two perspectives, and summarizes the methods for their preparation and identification. The biologically active peptides derived from different grain proteins have varied main functional properties, which may be related to the differences in the amino acid composition and protein types of different grains. On this basis, the structure-activity relationship of cereal protein peptides was discussed. The advancement of identification technology makes the integration of bioinformatics and bioactive peptide research closer. Bioinformatics by combination of online database, computer simulation and experimental verification is helpful to in-deep study the structure-activity relationship of biologically active peptides, and improve efficiency in the process of obtaining target peptides with less cost. In addition, the application of cereal protein peptides in the food industry is also discussed.

Anti-diabetic effects of bioactive peptides: recent advances and clinical implications

Diabetes mellitus, particularly type 2 diabetes, is a major global health issue, the prevalence of which seems to be on the rise worldwide. Interventions such as healthy diet, physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight, and medication (for those with a diagnosis of diabetes) are among the most effective strategies to prevent and control diabetes. Three-quarters of patients diagnosed with diabetes are in countries with poor financial infrastructure, nutritional awareness and health care systems. Concomitantly, the cost involved in managing diabetes through the intake of antidiabetic drugs makes it prohibitive for majority of patients. Food protein-derived bioactive peptides have the potential of being formulated as nutraceuticals and drugs in combating the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of metabolic disorders with little or "no known" complications in humans. Coupled with lifestyle modifications, the potential of bioactive peptides to maintain normoglycemic range is actualized by influencing the activities of incretins, DPP-IV, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase enzymes. This article discusses the biofunctionality and clinical implications of anti-diabetic bioactive peptides in controlling the global burden of diabetes.

Discovery of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitory peptides from Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) by a comprehensive approach

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) is the prime target for glycemic control by inactivating glucagon-like peptide and decreasing postprandial glucose levels. Food protein-derived peptides have been considered to be capable of inhibiting DPP4. In this study, a novel strategy was developed by coupling in silico gastrointestinal digestion, pharmacophore and three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationships (3D-QSAR) analysis to discover DPP4 inhibitory peptide, and in vitro assay was confirmed. Specifically, the simulated gastrointestinal hydrolysis was firstly performed on Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) proteins, the generated peptides were used to establish peptide library. Secondly, 60 DPP4 inhibitors were selected and pharmacophore model was generated; moreover, 40 DPP4 inhibitory tripeptides were collected to construct 3D-QSAR model. Thirdly, the pharmacophore and 3D-QSAR models were employed to screen the above peptide library. Lastly, the in vitro activity assay was performed, which showed that the six tripeptides (VSM, ISW, VSW, ICY, ISD and ISE) exhibited inhibitory activities on DPP4, and ICY was the most active tripeptide with the IC₅₀ value of 0.73 mM. This is the first identification of Largemouth bass protein-derived peptides as DPP4 inhibitor, which is good for the development of food protein-derived peptides with glucose lowering activity.

Use of Alcalase in the production of bioactive peptides: A review

This review aims to cover the uses of the commercially available protease Alcalase in the production of biologically active peptides since 2010. Immobilization of Alcalase has also been reviewed, as immobilization of the enzyme may improve the final reaction design enabling the use of more drastic conditions and the reuse of the biocatalyst. That way, this review presents the production, via Alcalase hydrolysis of different proteins, of peptides with antioxidant, angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory, metal binding, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities (among other bioactivities) and peptides that improve the functional, sensory and nutritional properties of foods. Alcalase has proved to be among the most efficient proteases for this goal, using different protein sources, being especially interesting the use of the protein residues from food industry as feedstock, as this also solves nature pollution problems. Very interestingly, the bioactivities of the protein hydrolysates further improved when Alcalase is used in a combined way with other proteases both in a sequential way or in a simultaneous hydrolysis (something that could be related to the concept of combi-enzymes), as the combination of proteases with different selectivities and specificities enable the production of a larger amount of peptides and of a smaller size.

The Potential of Modulating the Reducing Sugar Released (and the Potential Glycemic Response) of Muffins Using a Combination of a Stevia Sweetener and Cocoa Powder

Muffins are popular bakery products. However, they generally contain high amounts of sugar. The over-consumption of muffins may therefore result in a high calorie intake and could lead to increased health risks. For this reason, muffins were prepared substituting sucrose with two levels of a base of stevia (Stevianna®). In addition, cocoa powder and vanilla were added to the muffin formulation with and without Stevianna® to mask any potential off flavors. Results illustrate that muffins with 50% Stevianna® replacement of sucrose were similar to the control samples in terms of volume, density and texture. However, replacement of sugar with 100% Stevianna® resulted in reductions in height (from 41 to 28 mm), volume (from 63 to 51 mL), and increased firmness (by four-fold) compared to the control sample. Sugar replacement significantly reduced the in vitro predictive glycemic response of muffins (by up to 55% of the control sample). This work illustrates the importance of sugar in maintaining muffin structure as well as controlling the rate of glucose release during simulated digestions.

Feed nutritional value of brewers' spent grain residue resulting from protease aided protein removal

Background

This study was conducted to evaluate the feed nutritional value of brewers’ spent grain (BSG) residue resulting from protease aided protein removal. The nutritional value was measured as nutrient content, gas production, nutrient digestibility and fermentation characteristics in batch culture.

Results

Protein extraction process decreased content of crude protein but concentrated the neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and ferulic acid in BSG residue. The changes in the chemical composition of BSG residue varied with enzyme and enzyme dosage. Digestibility of dry matter (DMD) and NDF of residue differed among proteases. Increasing alcalase dosage linearly decreased DMD, whereas, the DMD linearly increased as everlase or flavourzyme dosage increased. Compared with BSG, the DMD, gas production and fermentation acid concentration of BSG residues were lower, whereas NDF digestibility was higher.

Conclusions

The substantially increased NDF content and improved in vitro NDF digestibility due to protease hydrolysis suggest that BSG residue can be potentially exploited as a viable fibre source for ruminant feeding.

Peptides from chicken processing by-product inhibit DPP-IV and promote cellular glucose uptake: potential ingredients for T2D management

Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) and stimulation of muscle glucose uptake are two of the key strategies for management of type-2-diabetes (T2D). In the present study, four protein hydrolysates generated by enzymatic hydrolysis of chicken by-product, i.e., mechanical chicken deboning residue, were evaluated for their DPP-IV inhibitory activity as well as their effect on glucose uptake by skeletal muscle cells. The DPP-IV inhibitory assay was performed at two concentrations (1000 μg mL-1 and 10 μg mL-1) for the crude chicken protein hydrolysates. The hydrolysate with the highest DPP-IV inhibition was selected for preparative-scale fractionation using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). The SEC fractions were tested for DPP-IV inhibitory activity as well as their effect on glucose uptake and metabolic activity of skeletal muscle cells. The muscle cells were treated with the SEC fractions and glucose uptake was measured based on luminescence detection of 2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphate (2DG6P). A fraction with peptides in the lower molecular weight range was shown to promote glucose uptake and to inhibit DPP-IV. Further chromatographic fractionation followed by inhibition assaying of the most potent SEC fraction led to isolation of five refined peptide fractions with more than 80% DPP-IV inhibition, which were subsequently analyzed with LC-HRMS/MS. This led to identification of 14 peptides as potential DPP-IV inhibitors from protein hydrolysates of mechanical chicken deboning residue.

In Silico Analysis of Bioactive Peptides in Invasive Sea Grass Halophila stipulacea

Halophila stipulacea is a well-known invasive marine sea grass in the Mediterranean Sea. Having been introduced into the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Channel, it is considered a Lessepsian migrant. Although, unlike other invasive marine seaweeds, it has not demonstrated serious negative impacts on indigenous species, it does have remarkable invasive properties. The present in-silico study reveals the biotechnological features of H. stipulacea by showing bioactive peptides from its rubisc/o protein. These are features such as antioxidant and hypolipideamic activities, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitions. The reported data open up new applications for such bioactive peptides in the field of pharmacy, medicine and also the food industry.

Characterisation of the in vitro bioactive properties of alkaline and enzyme extracted brewers' spent grain protein hydrolysates

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a co-product of the brewing industry that has been shown to contain a range of bioactive peptides encrypted within its protein sequences. Two methods were evaluated herein to generate bioactive peptides; (i) an alkaline extracted BSG protein rich fraction (BSG-PI) was hydrolysed using different combinations of proteolytic enzymes and (ii) BSG was pre-treated with carbohydrases followed by direct hydrolysis using proteolytic enzymes (BSG-DH). BSG-DH with Alcalase/Flavourzyme resulted in significantly higher (p < .05) protein yield when compared to BSG-PI (63.09 ± 0.27 and 58.90 ± 1.45%, respectively). The antioxidant activities (ORAC, FRAP and ABTS) of the BSG-PI and -DH hydrolysates differed depending on the assay and proteolytic enzyme combination preparations used for hydrolysis. Inhibition of DPP-IV by the BSG-PI hydrolysates ranged from 87.01 ± 0.15 to 89.61 ± 0.12% while inhibition by the BSG-DH hydrolysates ranged from 35.71 ± 0.72 to 85.06 ± 0.17%. A significant reduction in the release of interleukin-6 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells was observed following treatment with BSG-PI hydrolysates generated with Prolyve/Protease P (58.30 ± 13.76%) and Corolase PP/Flavourzyme (48.02 ± 10.82%) when compared to untreated LPS stimulated control cells (100%). BSG-DH hydrolysates were subjected to in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGID) which resulted in a reduction in antioxidant activity, an increase in DPP-IV inhibition and no change in the immunomodulatory activity. Ultrafiltration of selected BSG-DH hydrolysates (through 30 and 10 kDa membranes) gave some permeates with enhanced bioactivities. The results demonstrate that direct enzymatic hydrolysis of BSG is a feasible approach for the generation of bioactive peptides without the prior use of an alkali protein extraction step.

Recently isolated antidiabetic hydrolysates and peptides from multiple food sources: a review

Diabetes, a metabolic syndrome of global importance has been on a progressive rise in recent years. Several pharmacological approaches have been made, which have proved effective, but with underlying side effects. Bioactive hydrolysates (BHs) and peptides (BPs) from food sources, however, have shown the relative advantage of imparting less adverse effects. Furthermore, BHs and BPs from food have been discovered to impart their antidiabetic potentials through one or more mechanisms such as inhibition of digestive enzymes, inhibition of the antigenic enzyme - Dipeptyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV), decrease in blood glucose levels and increase in insulin uptake. Several plants and animal sources have been used as protein sources for the isolation of antidiabetic hydrolysates and peptides through different mechanisms and analytical techniques. This review integrates recent research information about several popular and unconventional food sources of BHs and BPs, their isolation techniques, antidiabetic effects and protein profiles. In addition, the fractionation technique(s) employed in each study and inhibition potentials of BHs and BPs are reviewed. This article is intended to supplement accessible scholarly literature and intellectual awareness on the subject of food-oriented approach for the management of diabetes.

Antithrombotic Activity of Brewers' Spent Grain Peptides and their Effects on Blood Coagulation Pathways

Antithrombotic activity of brewers' spent grain peptides before and after simulated gastrointestinal digestion and their effects on blood coagulation pathways were evaluated. Two hydrolysates were produced using sequential enzymatic systems: alkaline protease + Flavourzyme (AF) and neutral protease + Flavourzyme (PF). Simulation of gastrointestinal digestion of AF and PF hydrolysates was made using porcine pepsin and pancreatin enzymes, obtaining the corresponding digested samples: AFD and PFD, respectively. Peptides were fractionated by ultrafiltration using a 1 kDa cut-off membrane. Hydrolysates had peptides with medium and low molecular weights (2100 and 500 Da, respectively), and Glu, Asp, Leu, Ala, and Phe were the most abundant amino acids. Gastrointestinal digested hydrolysates presented high proportion of small peptides (~500 Da), and higher amount of Val, Tyr, and Phe than hydrolysates. Mass spectrum (HDMS Q-TOF) of AFD-ultrafiltered fraction <1 kDa exhibited peptides from 500 to 1000 Da, which are not present in AF. PFD showed the generation of new peptides from 430 to 1070 Da. All samples showed thrombin inhibitory activity. However, no effect was observed on prothrombin time. Peptides <1 kDa from hydrolysates and digested samples delayed thrombin and thromboplastin time respect to the control (~63%). Also the samples showed thrombin inhibitory activity at common pathway level. Thus, brewers' spent grain peptides exerted their antithrombotic activity by inhibiting the intrinsic and common pathways of blood coagulation. This is the first report to demonstrate that brewers' spent grain peptides are able to delay clotting time after simulated gastrointestinal digestion.

Effect of Fortification with Fish (Pseudophycis bachus) Powder on Nutritional Quality of Durum Wheat Pasta

This paper investigates the nutraceutical (phenolic content and antioxidant activity) and nutritional potential (protein and starch digestibility) of supplementation of durum wheat semolina with 5–20% fish powder (Pseudophycis bachus). In general, all enriched pasta with fish powder showed a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in reducing sugar released during an in vitro digestion, and reductions in standardized area under the curve (AUC) values, compared to control pasta. The potentially bioaccessible fraction of pasta enriched with 20% fish powder (FP) was characterized as having a 177–191% increase in phenolic content and a 145–556% higher antiradical activity. Elevation of these parameters in fortified pasta was accompanied by interaction of wheat starch, protein, and fish powder protein. Supplementation of fish powder also influenced protein digestibility (a reduction from 84.60% for control pasta to 80.80% for pasta with 20% fish powder). Fortification improved the nutraceutical and nutritional potential of the studied pasta with the effects depending on factors including protein-starch-phenolic interactions.

Generation of wheat gluten hydrolysates with dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory properties

Wheat gluten hydrolysates contain known/potential DPP-IV inhibitory peptides.