1
|
Monson DH, Taylor RL, Hilderbrand GV, Erlenbach JA, Coletti HA, Kloecker KA, Esslinger GG, Bodkin JL. Brown bear–sea otter interactions along the Katmai coast: terrestrial and nearshore communities linked by predation. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Sea otters were extirpated throughout much of their range by the maritime fur trade in the 18th and 19th centuries, including the coast of Katmai National Park and Preserve in southcentral Alaska. Brown bears are an important component of the Katmai ecosystem where they are the focus of a thriving ecotourism bear-viewing industry as they forage in sedge meadows and dig clams in the extensive tidal flats that exist there. Sea otters began reoccupying Katmai in the 1970s where their use of intertidal clam resources overlapped that of brown bears. By 2008, the Katmai sea otter population had grown to an estimated 7,000 animals and was likely near carrying capacity; however, in 2006–2015, the age-at-death distribution (AADD) of sea otter carcasses collected at Katmai included a higher-than-expected proportion of prime-age animals compared to most other sea otter populations in Alaska. The unusual AADD warranted scientific investigation, particularly because the Katmai population is part of the Threatened southwest sea otter stock. Brown bears in Katmai are known to prey on marine mammals and sea otters, but depredation rates are unknown; thus, we investigated carnivore predation, especially by brown bears, as a potential explanation for abnormally high prime-age otter mortality. We installed camera traps at two island-based marine mammal haulout sites within Katmai to gather direct evidence that brown bears prey on seals and sea otters. Over a period of two summers, we gathered photo evidence of brown bears making 22 attempts to prey on sea otters of which nine (41%) were successful and 12 attempts to prey on harbor seals of which one (8%) was successful. We also developed a population model based on the AADD to determine if the living population is declining, as suggested by the high proportion of prime-age animals in the AADD. We found that the population trend predicted by the modeled AADDs was contradictory to aerial population surveys that indicated the population was not in steep decline but was consistent with otter predation. Future work should focus on the direct and indirect effects these top-level predators have on each other and the coastal community that connects them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel H Monson
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center , 4210 University Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 , USA
| | - Rebecca L Taylor
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center , 4210 University Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 , USA
| | - Grant V Hilderbrand
- National Park Service, Alaska Regional Office , 240 W. 5th Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99501 , USA
| | - Joy A Erlenbach
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University , Pullman, Washington 99164 , USA
| | - Heather A Coletti
- National Park Service, Southwest Alaska Inventory and Monitoring Program , 4175 Geist Road, Fairbanks, Alaska 99709 , USA
| | - Kimberly A Kloecker
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center , 4210 University Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 , USA
| | - George G Esslinger
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center , 4210 University Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 , USA
| | - James L Bodkin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center , 4210 University Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99508 , USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Braun CD, Arostegui MC, Thorrold SR, Papastamatiou YP, Gaube P, Fontes J, Afonso P. The Functional and Ecological Significance of Deep Diving by Large Marine Predators. ANNUAL REVIEW OF MARINE SCIENCE 2022; 14:129-159. [PMID: 34416123 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-marine-032521-103517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Many large marine predators make excursions from surface waters to the deep ocean below 200 m. Moreover, the ability to access meso- and bathypelagic habitats has evolved independently across marine mammals, reptiles, birds, teleost fishes, and elasmobranchs. Theoretical and empirical evidence suggests a number of plausible functional hypotheses for deep-diving behavior. Developing ways to test among these hypotheses will, however, require new ways to quantify animal behavior and biophysical oceanographic processes at coherent spatiotemporal scales. Current knowledge gaps include quantifying ecological links between surface waters and mesopelagic habitats and the value of ecosystem services provided by biomass in the ocean twilight zone. Growing pressure for ocean twilight zone fisheries creates an urgent need to understand the importance of the deep pelagic ocean to large marine predators.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Camrin D Braun
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA;
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Martin C Arostegui
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA;
- Air-Sea Interaction and Remote Sensing Department, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
| | - Simon R Thorrold
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA;
| | - Yannis P Papastamatiou
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33181, USA
| | - Peter Gaube
- Air-Sea Interaction and Remote Sensing Department, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
| | - Jorge Fontes
- Okeanos and Institute of Marine Research, University of the Azores, 9901-862 Horta, Portugal
| | - Pedro Afonso
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA;
- Okeanos and Institute of Marine Research, University of the Azores, 9901-862 Horta, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Fayet AL, Houston AI. A critical evaluation of the index of patch quality. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20210459. [PMID: 34004133 PMCID: PMC8131121 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.0459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The inverse optimality approach can allow us to learn about an animal's environment by assuming their behaviour is optimal. This approach has been applied to animals diving underwater for food to produce the index of patch quality (IPQ), which aims to provide a proxy for prey abundance or quality in a foraging patch based on the animal's diving behaviour. The IPQ has been used in several empirical studies but has never been evaluated theoretically. Here, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the IPQ approach from a theoretical angle and review the empirical evidence supporting its use. We highlight several potential issues, in particular with the gain function-the function describing the energetic gain of an animal during a dive-used to calculate the IPQ. We investigate an alternative gain function which is appropriate in some cases, provide a new model based on this function, and discuss differences between the IPQ model and ours. We also find that there is little supporting empirical evidence justifying the general use of the IPQ and suggest future empirical validation methods which could help strengthen the case for the IPQ. Our findings have implications for the field of diving ecology and habitat assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annette L Fayet
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| | - Alasdair I Houston
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Bishop AM, Dubel AK, Sattler R, Brown CL, Horning M. Wanted dead or alive: characterizing likelihood of juvenile Steller sea lion predation from diving and space use patterns. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2019. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
5
|
Rodgers EM, Franklin CE. Diving beyond Aerobic Limits: Effect of Temperature on Anaerobic Support of Simulated Predator Avoidance Dives in an Air-Breathing Ectotherm. Physiol Biochem Zool 2019; 92:293-302. [PMID: 30864880 DOI: 10.1086/702828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Diving optimality models predict air breathers to routinely dive within aerobic limits, but predator avoidance dives may be an exception. Lengthening submergence times during a predation threat may enhance survival probability, and we therefore hypothesized that predator avoidance dives in juvenile estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) would be partially anaerobically fueled. We also predicted that reliance on anaerobic metabolism would increase at elevated temperatures to offset the faster depletion of body oxygen stores. Crocodiles were maintained at 28° and 34°C for 60 d and subsequently underwent simulated predator avoidance dive trials at two test temperatures (28° and 34°C). Blood was sampled immediately on surfacing to measure plasma lactate concentrations relative to nondiving (control) values. Aerobic dive limits (cADL; min) were also calculated using known body mass and oxygen storage relationships and rates of diving oxygen consumption and compared with observed dive durations. Postdive plasma lactate levels were elevated beyond resting levels at both test temperatures, indicating that aerobic thresholds were surpassed during simulated predator avoidance dives. Similarly, ≥90% of dive durations exceeded cADLs at both test temperatures. Postdive plasma lactate concentrations were independent of water temperature and thermal acclimation treatment. Together, these findings suggest that reliance on anaerobiosis during simulated predator avoidance dives is important regardless of temperature.
Collapse
|
6
|
Mahendiran M. Coexistence of three sympatric cormorants (Phalacrocorax spp.); partitioning of time as an ecological resource. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:160175. [PMID: 27293799 PMCID: PMC4892461 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.160175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Resource partitioning is well known along food and habitat for reducing competition among sympatric species, yet a study on temporal partitioning as a viable basis for reducing resource competition is not empirically investigated. Here, I attempt to identify the mechanism of temporal partitioning by intra- and interspecific diving analyses of three sympatric cormorant species at different freshwater wetlands around the Delhi region. Diving results indicated that cormorants opted for a shallow diving; consequently, they did not face any physiological stress. Moreover, diving durations were linked with seasons, foraging time and foraging habitats. Intraspecific comparison suggested that cormorants spent a longer time underwater in early hours of the day. Therefore, time spent for dive was higher in the forenoon than late afternoon, and the interspecific analysis also yielded a similar result. When Phalacrocorax niger and Phalacrocorax fuscicollis shared the same foraging habitat, they tended to differ in their foraging time (forenoon/afternoon). However, when P. niger and Phalacrocorax carbo shared the same foraging time, they tended to use different foraging habitats (lentic/lotic) leading to a mechanism of resource partitioning. Thus, sympatric cormorants effectively use time as a resource to exploit the food resources and successful coexistence.
Collapse
|
7
|
Symons J, Pirotta E, Lusseau D. Sex differences in risk perception in deep-diving bottlenose dolphins leads to decreased foraging efficiency when exposed to human disturbance. J Appl Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Symons
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; Aberdeen AB24 2TZ UK
| | - Enrico Pirotta
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; Aberdeen AB24 2TZ UK
| | - David Lusseau
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; Aberdeen AB24 2TZ UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Robertson FC, Koski WR, Thomas TA, Richardson WJ, Würsig B, Trites AW. Seismic operations have variable effects on dive-cycle behavior of bowhead whales in the Beaufort Sea. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2013. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
|
9
|
Adaptations for marine habitat and the effect of Triassic and Jurassic predator pressure on development of decompression syndrome in ichthyosaurs. Naturwissenschaften 2012; 99:443-8. [PMID: 22573359 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-012-0918-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 04/18/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Decompression syndrome (caisson disease or the "the bends") resulting in avascular necrosis has been documented in mosasaurs, sauropterygians, ichthyosaurs, and turtles from the Middle Jurassic to Late Cretaceous, but it was unclear that this disease occurred as far back as the Triassic. We have examined a large Triassic sample of ichthyosaurs and compared it with an equally large post-Triassic sample. Avascular necrosis was observed in over 15% of Late Middle Jurassic to Cretaceous ichthyosaurs with the highest occurrence (18%) in the Early Cretaceous, but was rare or absent in geologically older specimens. Triassic reptiles that dive were either physiologically protected, or rapid changes of their position in the water column rare and insignificant enough to prevent being recorded in the skeleton. Emergency surfacing due to a threat from an underwater predator may be the most important cause of avascular necrosis for air-breathing divers, with relative frequency of such events documented in the skeleton. Diving in the Triassic appears to have been a "leisurely" behavior until the evolution of large predators in the Late Jurassic that forced sudden depth alterations contributed to a higher occurrence of bends.
Collapse
|
10
|
Courtney DL, Foy R. Pacific sleeper shark Somniosus pacificus trophic ecology in the eastern North Pacific Ocean inferred from nitrogen and carbon stable-isotope ratios and diet. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 80:1508-1545. [PMID: 22497395 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03261.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Stable-isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and lipid-normalized carbon (δ¹³C') were used to examine geographic and ontogenetic variability in the trophic ecology of a high latitude benthopelagic elasmobranch, the Pacific sleeper shark Somniosus pacificus. Mean muscle tissue δ¹³C' values of S. pacificus differed significantly among geographic regions of the eastern North Pacific Ocean. Linear models identified significant ontogenetic and geographic variability in muscle tissue δ¹⁵N values of S. pacificus. The trophic position of S. pacificus in the eastern North Pacific Ocean estimated here from previously published stomach-content data (4·3) was within the range of S. pacificus trophic position predicted from a linear model of S. pacificus muscle tissue δ¹⁵N (3·3-5·7) for fish of the same mean total length (L(T) ; 201·5 cm), but uncertainty in predicted trophic position was very high (95% prediction intervals ranged from 2·9 to 6·4). The relative trophic position of S. pacificus determined here from a literature review of δ¹⁵N by taxa in the eastern North Pacific Ocean was also lower than would be expected based on stomach-content data alone when compared to fishes, squid and filter feeding whales. Stable-isotope analysis revealed wider variability in the feeding ecology of S. pacificus in the eastern North Pacific Ocean than shown by diet data alone, and expanded previous conclusions drawn from analyses of stomach-content data to regional and temporal scales meaningful for fisheries management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D L Courtney
- School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Juneau Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, 17101 Point Lena Loop Road, Juneau, AK 99801, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Houston AI. Assessing models of optimal diving. Trends Ecol Evol 2011; 26:292-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2010] [Revised: 03/03/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
12
|
Wirsing AJ, Heithaus MR, Dill LM. Predator-induced modifications to diving behavior vary with foraging mode. OIKOS 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18844.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
13
|
Miller PJO, Shapiro AD, Deecke VB. The diving behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales (Orcinus orca): variations with ecological not physiological factors. CAN J ZOOL 2010. [DOI: 10.1139/z10-080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Mammal-eating killer whales ( Orcinus orca (L., 1758)) are a rare example of social predators that hunt together in groups of sexually dimorphic adults and juveniles with diverse physiological diving capacities. Day–night ecological differences should also affect diving as their prey show diel variation in activity and mammal-eating killer whales do not rely on echolocation for prey detection. Our objective was to explore the extent to which physiological aerobic capacities versus ecological factors shape the diving behaviour of this breath-hold diver. We used suction-cup-attached depth recorders (Dtags) to record 7608 dives of 11 animals in southeast Alaska. Analysis of dive sequences revealed a strong bout structure in both dive depth and duration. Day–night comparisons revealed reduced rates of deep dives, longer shallow dives, and shallower long-duration dives at night. In contrast, dive variables did not differ by age–sex class. Estimates of the aerobic dive limit (cADL) suggest that juveniles exceeded their cADL during as much as 15% of long dives, whereas adult males and females never exceeded their cADL. Mammal-eating killer whales in this area appear to employ a strategy of physiological compromise, with smaller group members diving nearer their physiological limits and large-bodied males scaling down their physiological performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick James O’Malley Miller
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS #50, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
- Marine Mammal Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Cetacean Research Laboratory, Vancouver Aquarium, Vancouver, BC V6B 3X8, Canada
| | - Ari Daniel Shapiro
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS #50, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
- Marine Mammal Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Cetacean Research Laboratory, Vancouver Aquarium, Vancouver, BC V6B 3X8, Canada
| | - Volker Bernt Deecke
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS #50, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
- Marine Mammal Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Cetacean Research Laboratory, Vancouver Aquarium, Vancouver, BC V6B 3X8, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Pratt KL, Franklin CE. Predator or prey? The dive response to aerial and aquatic predators of Arafura filesnakes. AUST J ZOOL 2009. [DOI: 10.1071/zo09080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In air-breathing aquatic animals, predation is a strong selection pressure that may be reduced by modification to diving patterns. The risk of predation increases with time spent at the surface, thus shorter, more frequent surfacing events or longer, less frequent surfacing events would decrease predation risk. A reduction in time spent on the surface can be achieved by use of bimodal respiration, which is an ability to extend dive duration using dissolved oxygen to supplement aerially acquired oxygen. Air is a more efficient respiratory medium; however, under predation pressure, the cost of surfacing increases and the reliance on aquatic gas exchange should therefore increase. We tested whether the bimodally respiring filesnake (Acrochordus arafurae) changed its diving behaviour under simulated aerial (model bird) and aquatic (large fish) predation. Aerial predation did not alter dive or surface duration, percentage time surfacing or activity. However, a greater number of longer dives were observed with fewer long surface intervals, suggesting an increase in the use of aquatic gas exchange. The diel diving patterns (short night dives, long day dives) may provide an in-built antipredatory response to aerial predation. The threat of aquatic predation produced atypical antipredator behaviour, with longer surface intervals, shorter dives and increased activity, indicating that piscivorous filesnakes may have identified the predatory fish as prey rather than a predator.
Collapse
|
15
|
Predicting synergistic effects of resources and predators on foraging decisions by juvenile Steller sea lions. Oecologia 2008; 158:775-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-008-1189-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
16
|
Rehberg MJ, Burns JM. Differences in diving and swimming behavior of pup and juvenile Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in Alaska. CAN J ZOOL 2008. [DOI: 10.1139/z08-018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Reduced juvenile survival caused by prey depletion is one hypothesis for the decline in the western Alaska population of Steller sea lions ( Eumetopias jubatus (Schreber, 1776)). To understand the exposure of young sea lions to these depletions, the swimming and diving behavior of pups, juveniles, and subadults was evaluated relative to prey behavior. Pups made shorter and shallower dives (13 m, 0.9 min) than juveniles or subadults, as expected based on physiological limitations, but juveniles and subadults dived to similar depths and durations (29 m, 1.7 min and 38 m, 2.0 min, respectively). Activity patterns of juveniles and subadults reflected diurnal prey migrations, while pup activity did not. Longitudinal trends in pup dive behavior reflected both physiological and behavioral development, while juvenile dive behaviors reflected seasonal changes in prey availability. Results suggest that adult females must continue to provide nutritional support to pups during winter because of the limited diving ability of these young animals. For this reason, the flexible lactation strategies that allow for longer nursing periods during periods of low prey availability and reduce female fecundity may improve juvenile survival.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Rehberg
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA, and Statewide Marine Mammal Program, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 525 West 67th Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99518, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| | - J. M. Burns
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA, and Statewide Marine Mammal Program, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 525 West 67th Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99518, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska Anchorage, 3211 Providence Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
|