Differential condition dependence among morphological traits inferred from responses to heat stress is predicted by sexual selection theory

Genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity in circadian rhythms in an armed beetle, Gnatocerus cornutus (Tenebrionidae)

Circadian rhythms, their free-running periods and the power of the rhythms are often used as indicators of biological clocks, and there is evidence that the free-running periods of circadian rhythms are not affected by environmental factors, such as temperature. However, there are few studies of environmental effects on the power of the rhythms, and it is not clear whether temperature compensation is universal. Additionally, genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity in biological clocks are important for understanding the evolution of biological rhythms, but genetic and plastic effects are rarely investigated. Here, we used 18 isofemale lines (genotypes) of Gnatocerus cornutus to assess rhythms of locomotor activity, while also testing for temperature effects. We found that total activity and the power of the circadian rhythm were affected by interactions between sex and genotype or between sex, genotype and temperature. The males tended to be more active and showed greater increases in activity, but this effect varied across both genotypes and temperatures. The period of activity varied only by genotype and was thus independent of temperature. The complicated genotype–sex–environment interactions we recorded stress the importance of investigating circadian activity in more integrated ways.