PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE CHROMISTA: A REVIEW AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

Cretaceous Diatoms: Morphology, Taxonomy, Biostratigraphy

The Cretaceous record of the diatoms presented here outlines our understanding of their early morphological development. Recent documentation of well preserved Lower Cretaceous (Aptian/Albian) diatom assemblages provides a window into the early history of the diatoms and serves as a base for comparing their subsequent morphological changes. A brief review of diatom biology and morphology is provided to introduce this paper and that of Barron and Baldauf (this volume). Additional background information on the diatoms can be found in the works of Schrader and Schuette (1981), Tappan (1980), Bach and Burkhardt (1984), Barron (1985a, 1993), Fenner (1985), Ricard (1987), Bradbury (1988), Round et al. (1990), and Picket-Heaps et al. (1990).

Phylogeny of the Eustigmatophyceae Based upon 18S rDNA, with Emphasis on Nannochloropsis

Complete 18S rDNA sequences were determined for 25 strains representing five genera of the Eustigmatophyceae, including re-examination of three strains with previously published sequences. Parsimony analysis of these and 44 published sequences for other heterokont chromophytes (unalignable sites removed) revealed that the Eustigmatophyceae were a monophyletic group. Analysis of eustigmatophyte taxa only (complete gene analyzed) supported the current familial classification scheme. Twenty one strains of Nannochloropsis were also examined using light microscopy. Gross morphology of cells was variable and overlapped among the strains; cell size was consistent within strains but sometimes varied considerably among strains of a species. The 18S rDNA of N. gaditana, N. oculata and N. salina was re-sequenced for strains used in previous publications and one or more nucleotide differences were found. Nucleotide sequences for Nannochloropsis species varied by up to 32 nucleotides. Identical sequences were found for six strains of N. salina, five strains of N. gadifana, four strains of N. granulata, and two strains of N. oculata, respectively. Four strains could not be assigned to described species and may represent two new species. The unique 18S rDNA sequences for each sibling species of Nannochloropsis demonstrates the presence of considerable genetic diversity despite the extremely simple morphology in this genus.

Biology and systematics of heterokont and haptophyte algae

In this paper, I review what is currently known of phylogenetic relationships of heterokont and haptophyte algae. Heterokont algae are a monophyletic group that is classified into 17 classes and represents a diverse group of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial algae. Classes are distinguished by morphology, chloroplast pigments, ultrastructural features, and gene sequence data. Electron microscopy and molecular biology have contributed significantly to our understanding of their evolutionary relationships, but even today class relationships are poorly understood. Haptophyte algae are a second monophyletic group that consists of two classes of predominately marine phytoplankton. The closest relatives of the haptophytes are currently unknown, but recent evidence indicates they may be part of a large assemblage (chromalveolates) that includes heterokont algae and other stramenopiles, alveolates, and cryptophytes. Heterokont and haptophyte algae are important primary producers in aquatic habitats, and they are probably the primary carbon source for petroleum products (crude oil, natural gas).

Evolutionary relationships among heterokont algae (the autotrophic stramenopiles) based on combined analyses of small and large subunit ribosomal RNA

In order to study the phylogenetic relationships within the stramenopiles, and particularly among the heterokont algae, we have determined complete or nearly complete large-subunit ribosomal RNA sequences for different species of raphidophytes, phaeophytes, xanthophytes, chrysophytes, synurophytes and pinguiophytes. With the small- and large-subunit ribosomal RNA sequences of representatives for nearly all known groups of heterokont algae, phylogenetic trees were constructed from a concatenated alignment of both ribosomal RNAs, including more than 5,000 positions. By using different tree construction methods, inferred phylogenies showed phaeophytes and xanthophytes as sister taxa, as well as the pelagophytes and dictyochophytes, and the chrysophytes/synurophytes and eustigmatophytes. All these relationships are highly supported by bootstrap analysis. However, apart from these sister group relationships, very few other internodes are well resolved and most groups of heterokont algae seem to have diverged within a relatively short time frame.

Ultrastructure as a Control for Protistan Molecular Phylogeny

A variety of molecular sequences and treeing methods have been used in attempts to unravel early protistan evolution and the origins of "higher" eukaryotic taxa. How does one know which approach is closest to the real phylogenetic tree? Obviously it is the robustness of its resulting trees, the coherence with other data sets, both structural and molecular, that is the test. Simply put: it should make biological sense. It seems evident, comparing morphology, especially ultrastructure, with ribosomal DNA trees, that the major lineages have now been confirmed. In particular, the remarkably conservative mitochondrial crista type in protists is coherent with mitochondrial DNA sequences. Several amitochondrial groups, presumed to be primitive on the basis of SSU ribosomal DNA, show alarming positional volatility when other genes are used. In addition, the presence of mitochondrial genes in the nucleus of several amitochondrial flagellates raises doubts about them being primordially amitochondrial. Consequently, the root of the eukaryote tree is still in question. A disturbing question arises: can loss of features in parasitism mimic primitiveness not only in a morphological but also in a molecular way, evolving more rapidly and creating long branches that methodologically place them basal in the trees? Conflicting molecular phylogenies cannot be resolved by molecular data alone. Morpholological, especially ultrastructural, data are an essential component of phylogenetic reconstruction.

Cladistic methods and chromophyte phylogeny

An examination of systematic methods is undertaken to establish interrelationships within the chromophytic algae, focussing on their relationship to the Oomycota. Evidence from both molecular and morphological studies suggests that the Oomycota appeared before the pigmented chromophytes. Theories on the origin of the chromophyte chloroplast are examined in the light of these findings.