Newer antidepressant drug use in East Asian psychiatric treatment settings: REAP (Research on East Asia Psychotropic Prescriptions) Study

Trends of Polypharmacy and Prescription Patterns of Antidepressants in Asia

PURPOSE

Little is known regarding the trend of polypharmacy in Asia. We used data from 5 Asian countries to examine the patterns of antidepressant (AD) prescription and trends of psychotropic polypharmacy over time.

METHODS

We used the cross-sectional, pharmacoepidemiological data from 2004 and 2013 REAP-AD (Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants) to examine the patterns of AD prescriptions in clinical settings in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. We compared the trend in polypharmacy (ie, concomitant use of ≥2 classes of psychotropic) among individuals receiving AD prescriptions in 2004 and 2013 using multivariable logistic regression models in different diagnostic categories.

RESULTS

The proportion of patients with psychotropic polypharmacy decreased from 2004 to 2013 in all 3 diagnostic categories, including mood disorders (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.44 [0.35-0.56]; P < 0.001), anxiety disorders (aOR, 0.58 [0.36-0.94]; P = 0.028), and psychotic disorders (aOR, 0.18 [0.05-0.60]; P = 0.006). Among individuals with AD prescriptions, concomitant use of anxiolytics (including sedative-hypnotics) decreased in patients with mood disorders (aOR, 0.34 [0.27-0.42]; P < 0.001) and anxiety disorders (aOR, 0.43 [0.27-0.67]; P < 0.001). In contrast, concomitant use of antipsychotics in patients with mood disorders increased (aOR, 1.43 [1.15-1.77]; P = 0.001), and concomitant use of mood stabilizers in patients with psychotic disorders also increased (aOR, 3.49 [1.50-8.14]; P = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study examining trends in psychotropic polypharmacy in East Asia. We found a generally decreasing trend of psychotropic polypharmacy in contrast to the increasing trend reported from Western countries. These findings could offer significant implications for health system reform or policy making.

Clinical Characteristics and Psychotropic Prescribing Patterns Associated with impaired Concentration in Asians with Depressive Disorders: The REAP-AD Study

The Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD) study aimed to survey and review antidepressant prescribing patterns in different clinical settings in Asian countries/areas. The REAP-AD study collected comprehensive data for psychiatric patients prescribed antidepressants in 10 Asian countries/areas during the period from March to June 2013. Depressive disorders have been an important issue closely associated with ill-health and disability in the realm of mental health. Impaired concentration was found to be a consistent symptom in depressive disorders regardless of clinical course, and a predictor of poor treatment outcome. In this work we aimed to identify clinical characteristics independently associated with impaired concentration in patients with depressive disorders, using data from the REAP-AD study. A total of 336 depressive disorder patients with impaired concentration and 786 depressive disorder patients without impaired concentration were recruited from 40 centers in 10 Asian countries/areas. A binary logistic regression model was fitted to identify the independent correlates of impaired concentration in patients with depressive disorders. After adjusting the effects of covariates, the binary logistic model showed that impaired concentration was independently associated with higher rates of loss of interest (P < 0.0001), fatigue (P < 0.0001), low self-confidence (P < 0.0001) and appetite disturbance (P < 0.0001) and with a lower rate of adjunctive antipsychotic prescription (P = 0.007). Our findings suggest that impaired concentration and its associated depressive symptom profiles constitute a unitary depressive symptom cluster that is also an intervening variable for poor social function.

A comparison of clinical characteristics of older adults treated with antidepressants in general and psychiatric hospitals in Asia

AIM

This study compared the demographics, clinical characteristics, and antidepressant prescription patterns between Asian patients aged 50 years and older attending psychiatric hospitals and those attending general hospitals.

METHODS

In total, 955 patients (604 in general hospitals, 351 in psychiatric hospitals) aged 50 years or older treated with antidepressants in 10 Asian countries and territories were examined. Patients' demographics, clinical features, and prescriptions of psychotropic drugs were recorded using a standardized protocol and data collection procedure.

RESULTS

Binary logistic regression revealed that high income and diagnosis of schizophrenia were independently associated with psychiatric hospital treatment, whereas outpatient care, diagnosis of anxiety disorders, and multiple major medical conditions were independently associated with general hospital treatment. In addition, tetracyclic and noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressants were more likely to be prescribed in general hospitals.

CONCLUSION

Older adults treated with antidepressants showed different demographic and clinical features between general hospitals and psychiatric hospitals in Asia.

Prescription pattern of antidepressants in five tertiary care psychiatric centres of India

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES

Limited data are available on prescription patterns of the antidepressants from India. We studied antidepressants' prescription pattern from five geographically distant tertiary psychiatric care centers of the India.

METHOD

In this cross-sectional study, all patients who attended outpatients department or were admitted in the psychiatry wards at Lucknow, Chandigarh, Tiruvalla, Mumbai and Guwahati on a fixed day, who were using or had been prescribed antidepressant medications, were included. The data were collected on a unified research protocol.

RESULTS

A total of 312 patients were included. Mean age was 39±14.28 yr and 149 (47.76%) were females, 277 (87.5%) were outpatients. Among the patients receiving antidepressants, 150 (48.1%) were of diagnoses other than depression. Diabetes mellitus 18 (5.78%) was the most common co-morbid medical illness. A total of 194 (62.2%) patients were using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) with escitalopram 114 (36.53%) being the most common antidepressant used. Overall, 272 (87.18%) patients were using newer antidepressants. Thirty (9.62%) were prescribed more than one antidepressant; 159 (50.96%) patients were prescribed hypnotic or sedative medications with clonazepam being the most common (n=116; 37.18%).

INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSIONS

About half of the patients with diagnoses other than depression were prescribed antidepressants. SSRIs were the most common group and escitalopram was the most common medication used. Concomitant use of two antidepressants was infrequent. Hypnotic and sedatives were frequently prescribed along with antidepressants.

Factors Associated With Antidepressant Dosing in Asia: Findings From the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Study

In this study, we sought to examine factors associated with dosing of antidepressants (ADs) in Asia. Based on reported data and clinical experience, we hypothesized that doses of ADs would be associated with demographic and clinical factors and would increase over time. This cross-sectional, pharmacoepidemiological study analyzed data collected within the Research Study on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Pattern for Antidepressants from 4164 participants in 10 Asian countries, using univariate and multivariate methods. The AD doses varied by twofold among countries (highest in PR China and RO Korea, lowest in Singapore and Indonesia), and averaged 124 (120-129) mg/d imipramine-equivalents. Average daily doses increased by 12% between 2004 and 2013. Doses were significantly higher among hospitalized patients and ranked by diagnosis: major depression > anxiety disorders > bipolar disorder, but were not associated with private/public or psychiatric/general-medical settings, nor with age, sex, or cotreatment with a mood stabilizer. In multivariate modeling, AD-dose remained significantly associated with major depressive disorder and being hospitalized. Doses of ADs have increased somewhat in Asia and were higher when used for major depression or anxiety disorders than for bipolar depression and for hospitalized psychiatric patients.

Differences in prescribing psychotropic drugs for elderly with depression

OBJECTIVE

The escalating tendency of elderly population aged 65 and over, which grown up to 9% since 2001 in Taiwan, remarks the important issue of mental health among ageing population. Depression in the elderly is frequently undetected or inadequately treated. This study aimed to investigate the pharmacotherapy of elderly patients with depression by comparing the patterns of prescribing psychotropic drugs (psychotropics) of psychiatrists and non-psychiatrists.

METHODS

A random sampling of 5% of inpatients from the National Health Insurance (NHI) database in Taiwan from 2001 to 2003 was selected. In all, 1058 (0.9%) inpatients aged 65 and older with a diagnosis of any depressive disorder were included. The psychotropic prescribing pattern and the dosages used were analysed and compared. Physician specialties were based on the record of NHI database. Non-psychiatrists were defined by physicians other than psychiatry.

RESULTS

A total of 88% of elderly depressed inpatients had two or more comorbid physical illnesses. The most commonly prescribed psychotropics were: antidepressants (71.4%), anxiolytics (62.6%) and hypnotics (51.4%). Psychiatrists had a higher rate of prescribing psychotropics, except anxiolytics, than non-psychiatrists. Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors were commonly prescribed, non-psychiatrists preferred the use of tricyclic antidepressants and moclobemide. Trazodone was the most preferred antidepressant, but was generally used in low dosages.

CONCLUSION

Psychiatrists generally utilised higher dosages of newer antidepressants than non-psychiatrists. Differences in the prescribing pattern of psychotropics existed between physician specialties. Further investigations are warranted to determine how the selection and dosing of drugs influence the outcome of depression on the elderly.

Generalized social anxiety disorder: A still-neglected anxiety disorder 3 decades since Liebowitz's review

In the 3 decades since Liebowitz's review of 'a neglected anxiety disorder,' controversy and challenges have remained in the study of social anxiety disorder (SAD). This review examines evidence around the classification and subtyping of SAD, focusing on generalized SAD. Substantial discrepancies and variation in definition, epidemiology, assessment, and treatment of generalized SAD exist as the international literature on it has grown. In East Asian cultures in particular, study of taijin kyofusho has been important to a broadened conceptualization of SAD into generalized SAD. Despite important progress with biological and other studies, many challenges in the understanding of generalized SAD will remain in the years to come.

Prevalence and prescription of antidepressants in depression with somatic comorbidity in Asia: the Research on East Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns study

Background:

Depression is often comorbid with chronic somatic diseases. Few previous studies have investigated the prevalence of somatic diseases in depression or the prescription pattern of antidepressants in comorbidly depressed patients in Asia. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of somatic comorbidity (SC) in depression and compared the prescriptions of antidepressants in depressed patients with and without SC.

Methods:

A total of 2320 patients treated with antidepressants in 8 Asian countries were examined, and a diagnosis was based on the International Classification of Disease, 10^th revision. We listed 17 common chronic somatic diseases. Patients’ socio-demographic and clinical characteristics and psychotropic drug prescriptions were recorded using a standardized protocol and data collection procedure.

Results:

Of the patients examined, 1240 were diagnosed with depression and 30% of them (n = 375) had SC. The most common comorbid condition was diabetes (23.7%). The patients with SC were more likely to seek help at a general hospital (74.7% vs. 47.2%), and had a higher incidence of symptoms involving sadness, disturbed sleep, and poor appetite. Noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant was prescribed more for patients with SC than for those without SC (30.4% vs. 22.9%).

Conclusions:

SC is common in depressed Asian patients. It is important to strengthen the recognition of depression, especially in general hospitals and when patients report some somatic discomfort. It is also a matter of urgency to establish evidence-based guidelines for the use of new antidepressants in depressed patients with SC.

Gender differences in depressive symptom profiles and patterns of psychotropic drug usage in Asian patients with depression: Findings from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants study

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there were gender-specific depressive symptom profiles or gender-specific patterns of psychotropic agent usage in Asian patients with depression.

METHOD

Clinical data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressant study (1171 depressed patients) were used to determine gender differences by analysis of covariates for continuous variables and by logistic regression analysis for discrete variables. In addition, a binary logistic regression model was fitted to identify independent clinical correlates of the gender-specific pattern on psychotropic drug usage.

RESULTS

Men were more likely than women to have loss of interest (adjusted odds ratio = 1.379, p = 0.009), fatigue (adjusted odds ratio = 1.298, p = 0.033) and concurrent substance abuse (adjusted odds ratio = 3.793, p = 0.008), but gender differences in other symptom profiles and clinical features were not significant. Men were also more likely than women to be prescribed adjunctive therapy with a second-generation antipsychotic (adjusted odds ratio = 1.320, p = 0.044). However, men were less likely than women to have suicidal thoughts/acts (adjusted odds ratio = 0.724, p = 0.028). Binary logistic regression models revealed that lower age (odds ratio = 0.986, p = 0.027) and current hospitalization (odds ratio = 3.348, p < 0.0001) were independent clinical correlates of use of second-generation antipsychotics as adjunctive therapy for treating depressed Asian men.

CONCLUSION

Unique gender-specific symptom profiles and gender-specific patterns of psychotropic drug usage can be identified in Asian patients with depression. Hence, ethnic and cultural influences on the gender preponderance of depression should be considered in the clinical psychiatry of Asian patients.

A systematic review of Chinese randomized clinical trials of SSRI treatment of depression

BACKGROUND

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have become the most frequently used antidepressants in China in recent decades. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the efficacy and tolerability of SSRIs in Chinese studies and the quality of Chinese randomized controlled trials.

METHODS

Major Western and Chinese electronic databases were searched for double-blind, parallel group randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing SSRIs (fluoxetine, citalopram, escitalopram, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, or sertraline) with other antidepressants such as SSRI, Selective Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor (SNRI), tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and/or placebo. Response, remission, and dropout rates due to side effects were defined as primary outcomes. Mean total Hamilton Rating Scale of Depression (HAMD) scores at endpoint, overall dropout rates and total Treatment Emergent Symptom Scale (TESS) scores were defined as secondary outcomes. Data were combined with random effects models. Risk of bias was assessed by the Cochrane evaluation tool. Quality of reports was assessed by the fulfilment of Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trial (CONSORT) items.

RESULTS

A total of 71 studies were included. Only one study was listed in both Chinese and Western databases. SSRIs were found to be more effective than TCAs. No significant differences were observed regarding dropout rates due to side effects. Using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, adequate methods of sequence generation were described in 16 (23%) studies. All authors failed to report trial registration. Informed consent, sources of funding, email address, protocol, and limitations were also not mentioned in most studies. However, reporting quality improved steadily between 1996 and 2013.

CONCLUSIONS

In light of the low trial quality, the findings of a significant advantage of SSRI over TCA in terms of response rate and remission rate should be replicated by large high-quality Chinese studies.

Preliminary study of patterns of medication use for depression treatment in China

This systematic review investigated drug utilization for depression and assessed trends in prescriptions in China. Major Western and Chinese electronic databases were searched without language restriction for studies reporting defined daily doses. A total of 76 studies published between 2000 and 2010 reporting data on prescriptions for depression in China between 1996 and 2008 were included. All studies were published in Chinese. Most trials were conducted in urban areas in south and east China. Twenty-nine drugs were reported as antidepressants. On the basis of defined daily doses, melitracen/flupentixol combination, fluoxetine, and paroxetine were the most frequently prescribed compounds. According to published evidence, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have become the most commonly prescribed class of antidepressant drugs in China.

Adverse drug reaction monitoring of antidepressants in the psychiatry outpatients department of a tertiary care teaching hospital

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

Depression is a prevalent mental disorder and the 4(th) leading cause of disability in the world as per the World Health Organization (WHO). The adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) to antidepressants are common and they can lead to a non compliance or even a discontinuation of the therapy. This study entitled us to monitor the ADR profile of the antidepressants in a tertiary care teaching hospital.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A longitudinal, observational study was conducted in the Outpatients Department of Psychiatry in S.C.B. Medical College and Hospital l in collaboration with the I.M.S and SUM Hospital. A total of 160 cases were studied for ADRs by using a predesigned CDSCO form. The patients who were on TCAs, SSRIs and newer antidepressants (SNRIs/NDRIs) were assessed by doing physical examinations, neurological examinations and relevant lab tests. The causalities were assessed by the criteria of the WHO-UMC. The analysis of ADRs was done by using the Chi square test.

RESULTS

Among the 160 patients who took antidepressants, 26.87% reported ADRs, with at least one possible causality.None were labeled as certain, as a rechallenge was not performed.ADRs were mostly observed in polytherapy (14.37%) and with antidepressants like TCAs (58.84%).

CONCLUSIONS

Agitation, anxiety and insomnia were the common ADRs which were associated with the use of antidepressants. This study offers a representative profile of the ADRs which can be expected in the Psychiatry Outpatients Department and due care must be taken to avoid these ADRs.

Utilization of antidepressants in Taiwan: a nationwide population-based survey from 2000 to 2009

OBJECTIVE

This study examined trends in antidepressant utilization in Taiwan between 2000 and 2009.

METHODS

We collected data from the National Health Insurance Research Database of all incident antidepressant use. We described the incidence, prevalence, and therapeutic indications of antidepressant use. We tested the trends by using logistic regression analyses with adjustment for age and sex.

RESULTS

Overall, the prevalence of antidepressant use per 1000 persons increased from 32.1 in 2000 to 46.3 in 2009; however, the incidence per 1000 persons declined from 20.8 in 2000 to 16.5 in 2009. For antidepressant classes, the prescriptions of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other new agents increased during the study periods; however, the use of tricyclic antidepressants, trazodone, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors declined. For therapeutic indications, we found increasing trends of antidepressant use for sleep and adjustment disorders; however, the rates of antidepressant use for mood disorder, anxiety disorders, and non-psychiatric conditions decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Regarding the new use of antidepressants in Taiwan between 2000 and 2009, we found that the decreased incidence of antidepressant use might be attributed mainly to the decreased use of tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Decreased use among middle-aged and older persons and fewer antidepressant prescriptions for non-psychiatric conditions were also noted.

Venlafaxine or a second SSRI: Switching after treatment failure with an SSRI among depressed inpatients: a retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND

Approximately 50% of patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) do not respond after adequate first-line treatment with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Special interest is paid to whether specialist level inpatient psychiatric care results differ from community studies.

AIM

To compare switching alternatives after treatment failure with an SSRI; switching to venlafaxine (Dexcel Pharma Israel) versus switching to another SSRI in depressed inpatients.

METHOD

A retrospective register study of inpatients was undertaken in a psychiatric tertiary care university center serving an urban catchment area in Israel with a population of more than 900,000.

RESULTS

A total of 401 MDD inpatients were assigned to antidepressant treatment. Of these, 232 records (47 venlafaxine, 185 SSRI) were included in the analysis. Patients assigned to venlafaxine treatment were older (mean age 64.3 ± 15 years versus 53.6 ± 17; p<0.01) and had more comorbid physical disorders (80% versus 57%; p<0.001). In the primary analysis, there was no statistical difference between groups in reduction in CGI-S total scores. The secondary end point of achieving a CGI-S score of 2 or less (1 = normal, not at all ill or 2 = borderline mentally ill) was statistically significantly better for the venlafaxine treated inpatients (P=0.02). AEs were reported less than 10% of patients in both groups.

CONCLUSION

Patients who remain severely depressed following treatment with an SSRI may gain benefit from the dual-action drug venlafaxine, rather than switching to another SSRI. These findings need to be further supported by prospective studies.

What can we learn from Chinese randomized controlled trials? A systematic review and meta-analysis of Chinese venlafaxine studies

This systematic review evaluated Chinese trials examining the efficacy of venlafaxine in the treatment of depression. Chinese databases CNKI and VIP and western databases were searched for blinded randomized controlled trial publications comparing venlafaxine to other antidepressants or placebo (in English or Chinese). Trials had to establish diagnosis of depression according to the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or International Classification of Diseases. Studies were excluded if more than 20% of participants had a primary diagnosis of dysthymia or if more than 15% had a primary diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g for rating scale scores and Mantel-Haenszel risk ratios (MH RR) for response and remission data. Effect sizes were combined in a fixed-effects model. A total of 25 studies were included. Nine trials compared venlafaxine to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; placebo-controlled trials were lacking. Quality was at best modest, and all trials were underpowered. There were more responders (MH RR, 1.08; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.02-1.15) and remitters (MH RR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.02-1.24) in venlafaxine groups compared with those in tricyclic antidepressant group. Hamilton Depression Rating Scale end point scores in the venlafaxine groups were lower (Hedges' g = 0.16; 95% CI, 0.04-0.27), and venlafaxine was better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressant (Hedges' g = 0.56; 95% CI, 0.37-0.74). There were no significant differences between venlafaxine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor on any of these parameters. Analyses of publication bias were inconclusive. Chinese researchers have published a number of randomized controlled trials comparing venlafaxine to active comparators, but study quality was found to be low. To make optimal use of their research potential Chinese, researchers will have to improve trial reporting and the peer-review process.

Psychotropic prescription practices in east Asia: looking back and peering ahead

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The present review focuses on the pharmacoepidemiological issues of psychotropic drug use in countries within east Asia, with special emphasis on antipsychotic, antidepressant and benzodiazepine prescriptions. Pharmacogenetic studies in different ethnic groups are also reviewed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies have revealed the prevalence of antipsychotic polytherapy (defined as the use of more than one antipsychotic; up to 45.7%), less conservative antipsychotic use (defined as the use of more than 1000 mg/day chlorpromazine equivalents; up to 17.9%) and depot antipsychotic use (up to 15.3%) in different populations in east Asia. Clozapine is commonly prescribed (up to 60%) in China. There is a trend of increasing second-generation antipsychotic use in east Asian countries. Up to 67.5% of patients received newer antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Benzodiazepine medications are used in up to 29.9% of study populations. Socioeconomic factors appear to be one of the major common factors that affect the prescription of antipsychotics and newer antidepressants. Pharmacogenetic factors associated with antipsychotic response, weight gain and extrapyramidal side effects have been examined. Treatment adherence and pharmacoeconomic factors are relatively understudied.

SUMMARY

Future studies on prescribing trends of antipsychotics and antidepressants need to focus on children, adolescent and elderly patient populations, the impact of changing prescription trends and the long-term effects on patients and their caregivers, as well as pharmacogenetic factors, which can potentially pave the way for better and more individualized prescription of psychotropic drugs in east Asia.

Pharmacotherapy for schizophrenic inpatients in East Asia--changes and challenges

OBJECTIVES

(1) to review characteristics of prescription patterns of antipsychotic medication in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, (2) to examine the changes of prescriptions brought about by the introduction of second generation psychotropic drugs (SGA) in East Asia, (3) to analyse factors contributing to the characteristic use of antipsychotics, and (4) to suggest ways and means to improve the prescription practice of antipsychotics in East Asia.

METHODS

Authors of this study collaborated with psychiatrists in East Asia to undertake an international survey reviewing prescription patterns of psychotropic medications in East Asia. The REAP (Research on Asian psychotropic prescription patterns) study reviewed the prescription of a large number of schizophrenic inpatients in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan in 2001 and 2004 using a unified research protocol and questionnaire.

RESULTS

Prescription patterns of antipsychotic drugs differ greatly country by country and have recently experienced rapid changes. Our survey shows second generation antipsychotics are frequently used in East Asia. The introduction of SGA resulted in the combined use of first generation psychotropic drugs (FGA) and SGA in East Asia. These changing prescription patterns have created many challenges for psychiatrists in East Asia.