The distribution and behaviour of cutaneous nerves in normal and abnormal skin

Pharmacophysiology of atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis is clearly characterized by altered cutaneous physiologic responses. There is a tendency to acral vasoconstriction. Rubbing causes skin pallor and white dermographism. Vascular instability is demonstrated by responses to cholinergic agents, histamine, and nicotinates. Psychophysiologic studies demonstrate exaggerated vasodilator responses to emotional stress with consequent pruritus and scratching. The itch threshold is low, duration is prolonged, and nighttime scratching movements may be frequent or almost continuous. Regardless of the inciting trigger factors, the scratching causes the damage and the severe dermatitis. Thermal as well as emotional stimuli to sweating cause severe itching in AD, yet the concept of a miliaria-type, poral occlusion mechanism remains unproven. Some studies suggest actually increased sweating along with erythema and pruritus during acute flares of AD. The concept of sweat-borne allergens causing skin reactions during sweating is interesting but has never been proven. Studies of sweat responses to pharmacologic agents have produced conflicting data, and attempts to link these responses to Szentivanyi's beta-adrenergic blockade theory are not convincing. The numerous variables of climate, season, sex, age, and habitus affect sweating greatly. Future studies must carefully control for each of these factors before pharmacologically induced sweat responses can be interpreted clearly. A number of lines of evidence suggest involvement of histamine and other mediators in the evolution of erythema, pruritus, and scratching in AD. Flares of the condition have been reproducibly evoked by only two incitants: experimental emotional stress interviews and specific food challenge in selected sensitive individuals. In the latter, increased plasma histamine has been demonstrated, presumably generated by antigen/IgE stimulated degranulation of mast cells in the gut and/or skin. The demonstrated increased histamine releasability of basophils from atopic individuals may be the result of defective cellular regulatory mechanisms. Recent studies have demonstrated increased cyclic AMP-phosphodiesterase activity in leukocytes from atopic individuals. The resultant decreased intracellular cyclic AMP removes an inhibitory factor, which in turn causes net cellular hyperresponsiveness. This effect has been shown to account, at least in part, for increased histamine release from leukocytes of patients with AD. These and other studies focused upon cell functional regulation are providing better understanding of basic biochemical abnormalities and may lead to improved diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in managing atopic disease.

Cutaneous blood flow during white dermographism in patients with atopic dermatitis

Cutaneous blood flow was determined before and immediately after rubbing the skin of 7 patients with atopic dermatitis and 6 normal subjects, using the local atraumatic 133Xe-method. In the atopic patients the rubbing of eczematous skin produced white dermographism and simultaneously the cutaneous blood flow decreased in all the patients from 15.2 +/- SEM 1.7 ml/100 g . min before the rubbing to 6.2 +/- SEM 1.6 ml/100 g . min during white dermographism (p less than 0.002). In all the normal subjects the rubbing stimulus was followed by an increase in blood flow from 5.2 +/- SEM 0.6 to 24.4 +/- SEM 3.1 ml/100 g . min (p less than 0.001), although red dermographism was not seen in all. It is concluded that the most reasonable explanation for the pallor during white dermographism is the reduced cutaneous blood flow.