CD137 deficiency does not affect development of airway inflammation or respiratory tolerance induction in murine models

CAR-NKT Cells in Asthma: Use of NKT as a Promising Cell for CAR Therapy

NKT cells, unique lymphocytes bridging innate and adaptive immunity, offer significant potential for managing inflammatory disorders like asthma. Activating iNKT induces increasing IFN-γ, TGF-β, IL-2, and IL-10 potentially suppressing allergic asthma. However, their immunomodulatory effects, including granzyme-perforin-mediated cytotoxicity, and expression of TIM-3 and TRAIL warrant careful consideration and targeted approaches. Although CAR-T cell therapy has achieved remarkable success in treating certain cancers, its limitations necessitate exploring alternative approaches. In this context, CAR-NKT cells emerge as a promising approach for overcoming these challenges, potentially achieving safer and more effective immunotherapies. Strategies involve targeting distinct IgE-receptors and their interactions with CAR-NKT cells, potentially disrupting allergen-mast cell/basophil interactions and preventing inflammatory cytokine release. Additionally, targeting immune checkpoints like PDL-2, inducible ICOS, FASL, CTLA-4, and CD137 or dectin-1 for fungal asthma could further modulate immune responses. Furthermore, artificial intelligence and machine learning hold immense promise for revolutionizing NKT cell-based asthma therapy. AI can optimize CAR-NKT cell functionalities, design personalized treatment strategies, and unlock a future of precise and effective care. This review discusses various approaches to enhancing CAR-NKT cell efficacy and longevity, along with the challenges and opportunities they present in the treatment of allergic asthma.

MAP3K19 Affects TWEAK-Induced Response in Cultured Bronchial Epithelial Cells and Regulates Allergic Airway Inflammation in an Asthma Murine Model

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is involved in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and asthma; however, the role of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 19 (MAP3K19) remains uncertain. Therefore, we investigated the involvement of MAP3K19 in in vitro EMT and ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma murine models. The involvement of MAP3K19 in the EMT and the production of cytokines and chemokines were analyzed using a cultured bronchial epithelial cell line, BEAS-2B, in which MAP3K19 was knocked down using small interfering RNA. We also evaluated the involvement of MAP3K19 in the OVA-induced asthma murine model using Map3k19-deficient (MAP3K19-/-) mice. Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) and tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) induced the MAP3K19 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in the BEAS-2B cells. The knockdown of MAP3K19 enhanced the reduction in E-cadherin mRNA and the production of regulated upon activation normal T cell express sequence (RANTES) via stimulation with TWEAK alone or with the combination of TGF-β1 and TWEAK. Furthermore, the expression of MAP3K19 mRNA was upregulated in both the lungs and tracheas of the mice in the OVA-induced asthma murine model. The MAP3K19-/- mice exhibited worsened eosinophilic inflammation and an increased production of RANTES in the airway epithelium compared with the wild-type mice. These findings indicate that MAP3K19 suppressed the TWEAK-stimulated airway epithelial response, including adhesion factor attenuation and RANTES production, and suppressed allergic airway inflammation in an asthma mouse model, suggesting that MAP3K19 regulates allergic airway inflammation in patients with asthma.

Immune checkpoint molecules in prevention and development of asthma

Allergic asthma is a respiratory disease initiated by type-2 immune responses characterized by secretion of alarmins, interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, and IL-13, eosinophilic inflammation, and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). Immune checkpoints (ICPs) are inhibitory or stimulatory molecules expressed on different immune cells, tumor cells, or other cell types that regulate immune system activation and maintain immune homeostasis. Compelling evidence indicates a key role for ICPs in both the progression and prevention of asthma. There is also evidence of asthma development or exacerbation in some cancer patients receiving ICP therapy. The aim of this review is to provide an updated overview of ICPs and their roles in asthma pathogenesis, and to assess their implications as therapeutic targets in asthma.

Tim-3 is dispensable for allergic inflammation and respiratory tolerance in experimental asthma

T cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing molecule-3 (Tim-3) has been described as a transmembrane protein, expressed on the surface of various T cells as well as different cells of innate immunity. It has since been associated with Th1 mediated autoimmune diseases and transplantation tolerance studies, thereby indicating a possible role of this receptor in counter-regulation of Th2 immune responses. In the present study we therefore directly examined the role of Tim-3 in allergic inflammation and respiratory tolerance. First, Tim-3^-/- mice and wild type controls were immunized and challenged with the model allergen ovalbumin (OVA) to induce an asthma-like phenotype. Analysis of cell numbers and distribution in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid as well as lung histology in H&E stained lung sections demonstrated a comparable degree of eosinophilic inflammation in both mouse strains. Th2 cytokine production in restimulated cell culture supernatants and serum IgE and IgG levels were equally increased in both genotypes. In addition, cell proliferation and the distribution of different T cell subsets were comparable. Moreover, analysis of both mouse strains in our respiratory tolerance model, where mucosal application of the model allergen before immunization, prevents the development of an asthma-like phenotype, revealed no differences in any of the parameters mentioned above. The current study demonstrates that Tim-3 is dispensable not only for the development of allergic inflammation but also for induction of respiratory tolerance in mice in an OVA-based model.

The phenotypic and functional study of tissue B cells in respiratory system provided important information for diseases and development of vaccines

The field of tissue-resident B cells has received increasing attention, yet the feature of tissue B cells in respiratory system is unclear. Here, we first show that non-circulating B cells obtained from nasal, trachea and lung tissues are numerically and phenotypically distinct from their circulating counterparts. Analysis of single cell transcriptome sequence identified multiple differentially expressed genes between non-circulating B cells and circulating B cells, which illustrated their heterogeneity. Furthermore, we found high expression of CXCR3 on non-circulating B cells, and the chemokine CXCL11 was also up-regulated in the respiratory tissues, suggesting that CXCR3-CXCL11 axis might accelerate the local resident of non-circulating B cells in respiratory tract. Interestingly, intranasal immunization with BCG in mice elicited a sustained humoral immune response via induction of IgA and IgG Abs, which revealed the role of B cells. Meanwhile, tissue-resident B cells, IgA⁺ and IgG⁺ memory B cells (MBCs) in respiratory tissues, as well as plasma cells in bone marrow, were expanded and maintained, and these subsets probably developed into antibody-producing cells to participate in the local humoral immunity. Our data illustrate the phenotype and function of tissue B cells in the upper and lower airways, provide references for the prospective development of vaccines.

Regulatory B cells control airway hyperreactivity and lung remodeling in a murine asthma model

BACKGROUND

Asthma is a widespread, multifactorial chronic airway disease. The influence of regulatory B cells on airway hyperreactivity (AHR) and remodeling in asthma is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to analyze the role of B cells in a house dust mite (HDM)-based murine asthma model.

METHODS

The influence of B cells on lung function, tissue remodeling, and the immune response were analyzed by using wild-type and B-cell-deficient (μMT) mice and transfer of IL-10-proficient and IL-10-deficient B cells to μMT mice.

RESULTS

After HDM-sensitization, both wild-type and μMT mice developed AHR, but the AHR was significantly stronger in μMT mice, as confirmed by 2 independent techniques: invasive lung function measurement in vivo and examination of precision-cut lung slices ex vivo. Moreover, airway remodeling was significantly increased in allergic μMT mice, as shown by enhanced collagen deposition in the airways, whereas the numbers of FoxP3⁺ and FoxP3^- IL-10-secreting regulatory T cells were reduced. Adoptive transfer of IL-10-proficient but not IL-10-deficient B cells into μMT mice before HDM-sensitization attenuated AHR and lung remodeling. In contrast, FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells were equally upregulated by transfer of IL-10-proficient and IL-10-deficient B cells.

CONCLUSION

Our data in a murine asthma model illustrate a central role of regulatory B cells in the control of lung function and airway remodeling and may support future concepts for B-cell-targeted prevention and treatment strategies for allergic asthma.

CD137: A checkpoint regulator involved in atherosclerosis

Inflammation is associated with atherosclerotic plaque development and precipitation of myocardial infarction and stroke, and anti-inflammatory therapy may reduce disease severity. Costimulatory molecules are key regulators of immune cell activity and inflammation, and are associated with disease development in atherosclerosis. Accumulating evidence indicates that a costimulatory molecule of the Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor superfamily, the checkpoint regulator CD137, promotes atherosclerosis and vascular inflammation in experimental models. In light of the burgeoning consideration of CD137-targeted therapy in the clinic, it will be important to better understand costimulator immunobiology in development of cardiovascular disease. Here, we review available data on the costimulator CD137 and its potential role in atherosclerosis.

B cell subsets are modulated during allergic airway inflammation but are not required for the development of respiratory tolerance in a murine model

Allergic asthma is a widespread chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. The role of different B cell subsets in developing asthma and respiratory tolerance is not well known. Especially regulatory B (Breg) cells are proposed to be important in asthma regulation. Using wild-type (WT) and B cell-deficient (μMT) mice we investigated how B cells are affected by induction of allergic airway inflammation and respiratory tolerance and whether they are necessary to develop these conditions. WT mice with an asthma-like phenotype, characterized by increased airway hyper reactivity, eosinophilic airway inflammation, mucus hypersecretion and elevated Th2 cytokines, exhibited increased MHCII and CD23 expression on follicular mature B cells in lung, bronchial lymph nodes (bLN) and spleen, which contributed to allergen-specific T cell proliferation in vitro. Germinal center B cell numbers were elevated and associated with increased production of allergen-specific immunoglobulins especially in bLN. In contrast, respiratory tolerance clearly attenuated these B cell alterations and directly enhanced marginal zone precursor B cells, which induced regulatory T cells in vitro. However, μMT mice developed asthma-like and tolerized phenotypes like WT mice. Our data indicate that although B cell subsets are affected by asthma-like and respiratory tolerant phenotypes, B cells are not required for tolerance induction.