Population dynamics of brushtail possums subject to fertility control

Improving wild animal welfare through contraception

To date, research on the welfare impacts of wildlife contraceptives has mostly been focused on the potential harms of contraceptives. However, there are compelling theoretical reasons to expect direct and indirect welfare benefits of wildlife contraceptives. These positive welfare effects would be experienced by more than just the treated individuals, because per capita resource availability will increase with decreasing numbers of individuals sharing a resource. In the present article, we discuss the potential for wildlife contraceptives to alleviate resource competition and their associated negative welfare effects at different scales. These effects are expected to vary across contexts and would presumably be stronger when wildlife contraceptives are used with the explicit purpose of improving wild animal welfare. The potential for considerable welfare gains for wildlife through the targeted use of contraceptives highlights the importance of both species-specific studies on the welfare benefits of wildlife contraceptives and further research on the links between population dynamics and wild animal welfare.

The optimal momentum of population growth and decline

About 50 years ago, Keyfitz (1971) asked how much further a growing human population would increase if its fertility rate were immediately to be reduced to replacement level and remain there forever. The reason for demographic momentum is an age-structure inertia due to relatively many potential parents because of past high fertility. Although nobody expects such a miraculous reduction in reproductive behavior, a gradual decline in fertility in rapidly growing populations seems inevitable. As any delay in fertility decline to a stationary level leads to an increase in the momentum, it makes sense to think about the timing and the quantum of the reduction in reproduction. More specifically, we consider an intertemporal trade-off between costly pro- and anti-natalistic measures and the demographic momentum at the end of the planning period. This paper uses the McKendrick-von Foerster partial differential equation of age-structured population dynamics to study a sketched problem in a distributed parameter control framework. Among the results obtained by applying an appropriate extension of Pontryagin's Maximum Principle are the following: (i) monotony of adaptation efforts to net reproduction rate and convex decrease/concave increase (if initial net reproduction rate exceeds 1/is below 1); and (ii) oscillating efforts and reproduction rate if, additionally, the size of the total population does not deviate from a fixed level.

Developing fertility control for rodents: a framework for researchers and practitioners

Fertility control is often heralded as a humane and effective technique for management of overabundant wildlife, including rodents. The intention is to reduce the use of lethal and inhumane methods, increase farm productivity and food security as well as reduce disease transmission, particularly of zoonoses. We developed a framework to guide researchers and stakeholders planning to assess the effectiveness of a potential contraceptive agent for a particular species. Our guidelines describe the overarching research questions which must be sequentially addressed to ensure adequate data are collected so that a contraceptive can be registered for use in broad-scale rodent management. The framework indicates that studies should be undertaken iteratively and, at times, in parallel, with initial research being conducted on (1) laboratory-based captive assessments of contraceptive effects in individuals; (2) simulation of contraceptive delivery using bait markers and/or surgical sterilization of different proportions of a field-based or enclosure population to determine how population dynamics are affected; (3) development of mathematical models which predict the outcomes of different fertility control scenarios; and (4) implementation of large-scale, replicated trials to validate contraceptive efficacy under various management-scale field situations. In some circumstances, fertility control may be most effective when integrated with other methods (e.g. some culling). Assessment of non-target effects, direct and indirect, and the environmental fate of the contraceptive must also be determined. Developing fertility control for a species is a resource-intensive commitment but will likely be less costly than the ongoing environmental and economic impacts by rodents and rodenticides in many contexts.

Breeding dynamics of overabundant koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) populations subject to fertility-control management

Abstract ContextThe koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) sometimes occurs as an overabundant folivore in south-eastern Australia, where high-density populations have caused defoliation of preferred food trees, threatening habitat. Kangaroo Island, South Australia and Budj Bim National Park, Victoria, are two regions where such eruptive population dynamics have arisen. One way of mitigating their damage is through management via fertility control. AimsThis paper examines the outcomes of fertility control (surgical sterilisation and treatment with levonorgestrel implants) on breeding dynamics at the population level, using data obtained from two separate koala management programs conducted by State Government wildlife agencies, South Australia Department for Environment and Water and Parks Victoria. MethodsThe relationships between female body condition, reproductive status, fertility control, age and population density were examined using linear mixed effects models. Population density (koalas/ha) was estimated using annual census data and modelled in a Bayesian framework. Key resultsBody condition was a key influence on breeding success in female koalas, with sexual maturity being defined by both age and body condition, whereas the effect of reproductive experience was minimal. It is likely that reduced densities have led to decreased intraspecific competition for food resources and territory, leading to increased breeding success at one management site (BBNP) and by allowing females to begin breeding at a lower overall body condition. The reduction in densities to sustainable levels at both management sites, despite differing fertility-control methods, supports the use of the less invasive and more cost-effective levonorgestrel implants as the preferred fertility-control method. ConclusionsIn addition to contraceptive effects, broad-scale fertility control may have resulted in a compensatory higher breeding success in the untreated population, possibly in response to decreasing densities, increased resource availability or behavioural responses to population management. ImplicationsAlthough compensatory breeding mechanisms can reduce the effectiveness of fertility control at the population level, ongoing fertility-control management can still be successful at reducing overabundant koala populations to sustainable levels with significant long-term commitment, provided that annual control targets are continuously met.

Serological and histological evaluation of species-specific immunocontraceptive vaccine antigens based on zona pellucida 3 in the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)

The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was introduced to Japanese islands and has impacted on the island’s biodiversity. Population control has been attempted through capturing but its efficiency has rapidly declined. Therefore, new additional control methods are required. Our focus has been on the immunocontraceptive vaccines, which act in an especially species-specific manner. The amino-acid sequence of the mongoose ovum zona pellucida protein 3 (ZP3) was decoded and two types of synthetic peptides (A and B) were produced. In this study, these peptides were administered to mongooses (each n=3) and the sera were collected to verify immunogenicity using ELISA and IHC. Treated mongoose sera showed an increasing of antibody titer according to immunizations and the antigen-antibody reactions against the endogenous mongoose ZP. In addition, IHC revealed that immune sera absorbed with each peptide showed a marked reduction in reactivity, which indicated the specificity of induced antibodies. These reactions were marked in peptide A treated mongoose sera, and the antibody titer of one of them lasted for at least 21 weeks. These results indicated that peptide A was a potential antigen, inducing autoantibody generation. Moreover, immunized rabbit antibodies recognized mongoose ZP species-specifically. However, the induction of robust immune memory was not observed. Also, the actual sterility effects of peptides remain unknown, it should be verified as a next step. In any case, this study verified synthetic peptides we developed are useful as the antigen candidates for immunocontraception of mongooses.

Contraception of prepubertal young can increase cost effectiveness of management of overabundant koala populations

Context With limited resources for wildlife management and conservation, it is vital that the effectiveness of management programs is maximised and costs reduced. Koala populations need to be reduced in locations where they are locally overabundant and over-browsing their food trees. Subcutaneous contraceptive implants containing levonorgestrel are currently used to control koala fertility to assist in reducing population densities. Dependent young are caught with their mothers, so are also available for contraception. Aims The overall aim was to investigate whether the effectiveness of koala contraception programs can be improved by administering levonorgestrel implants to female young along with their mothers. This was achieved by: (1) determining if implanting females before sexual maturation affects their fertility, growth and pouch development; and (2) developing a stage-structured population growth model to compare two management scenarios. Methods Juvenile female koalas (11–17 months old) were treated with either a control (n = 5) or 70 mg levonorgestrel implant (n = 5). Koalas were caught every 4 to 6 weeks for 15 months, then every 3 to 12 months for 5 years. Koalas were weighed and head length measured. Pouches were checked for young. Pouch development was assessed as a proxy for sexual maturation. A stage-based population model simulating koala population growth was developed to compare different management scenarios: no treatment; treatment of adults only; and treatment of adults plus their dependent young. Key results Levonorgestrel implants prevented births with no effect on growth, survival or timing of sexual maturation. Population growth simulations indicate that treating dependent young with their mothers results in earlier population reduction. Conclusions The treatment of prepubertal female koalas with levonorgestrel implants is a safe and effective method that increases the effectiveness of koala contraception programs. Implications Development of novel strategies may provide opportunities to increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of management programs with constrained resources.

Potential effects of incorporating fertility control into typical culling regimes in wild pig populations

Effective management of widespread invasive species such as wild pigs (Sus scrofa) is limited by resources available to devote to the effort. Better insight of the effectiveness of different management strategies on population dynamics is important for guiding decisions of resource allocation over space and time. Using a dynamic population model, we quantified effects of culling intensities and time between culling events on population dynamics of wild pigs in the USA using empirical culling patterns and data-based demographic parameters. In simulated populations closed to immigration, substantial population declines (50-100%) occurred within 4 years when 20-60% of the population was culled annually, but when immigration from surrounding areas occurred, there was a maximum of 50% reduction, even with the maximum culling intensity of 60%. Incorporating hypothetical levels of fertility control with realistic culling intensities was most effective in reducing populations when they were closed to immigration and when intrinsic population growth rate was too high (> = 1.78) to be controlled by culling alone. However, substantial benefits from fertility control used in conjunction with culling may only occur over a narrow range of net population growth rates (i.e., where net is the result of intrinsic growth rates and culling) that varies depending on intrinsic population growth rate. The management implications are that the decision to use fertility control in conjunction with culling should rely on concurrent consideration of achievable culling intensity, underlying demographic parameters, and costs of culling and fertility control. The addition of fertility control reduced abundance substantially more than culling alone, however the effects of fertility control were weaker than in populations without immigration. Because these populations were not being reduced substantially by culling alone, fertility control could be an especially helpful enhancement to culling for reducing abundance to target levels in areas where immigration can't be prevented.

DiazaCon reduces black-tailed prairie dog reproduction in Colorado

Context Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomus ludovicianus) often come into conflict with humans in urban natural areas adjacent to private property by destroying plants and denuding the landscape. There is a diversity of attitudes related to urban prairie dog management in Colorado and interest in non-lethal methods is increasing. Therefore, the development of non-lethal methods that allow the existence of prairie dogs and mitigate damage related to population density is needed. Aims The efficacy of DiazaCon (20,25-diazacholesterol dihydrochloride, a cholesterol analogue) as an oral contraceptive bait for reducing reproduction in black-tailed prairie dogs was tested. Persistence of DiazaCon in black-tailed prairie dogs 11 months after initial application was also determined. Methods Prairie dogs were baited with DiazaCon-coated rolled oats or control bait for 10 days over a 20-day period in November 2007 on one control and one treatment site. Sites were randomly assigned to a treatment group. Visual counts were used 8 months post-treatment (June/July 2008) to determine pup:adult ratios on both sites. Prairie dogs on both sites were trapped 11 months post-treatment (September/October 2008) to gather mass and age data to assess juvenile:adult ratios and to collect blood samples for determination of serum cholesterol and desmosterol concentrations. Key results DiazaCon treatment reduced the number of pups per adult by 95.5% when compared with the control site in June/July 2008 (0.09±0.02, n=10, number of observation days) versus 2.0±0.2 (n=10). Free serum cholesterol levels in treated animals (370.7µgmL–1) were lower than control animal levels (411.6µgmL–1, P<0.015), while treated desmosterol levels (14.5µgmL–1) were higher than controls (0.35µgmL–1, P<0.02) 11 months after ingestion of DiazaCon bait. However, these differences would likely not have been sufficient to prevent successful breeding in the upcoming breeding season. Conclusions DiazaCon is an effective contraceptive in black-tailed prairie dogs. It is probably reversible and will likely affect breeding success for only one breeding season. DiazaCon may provide an additional tool to help manage urban populations of prairie dogs in locations where lethal control is unacceptable. Implications The need for further research into secondary hazards to non-target animals, such as predators, is discussed. Recommendations for field application are also discussed.

Ecological feedbacks can reduce population-level efficacy of wildlife fertility control

Anthropogenic stress on natural systems, particularly the fragmentation of landscapes and the extirpation of predators from food webs, has intensified the need to regulate abundance of wildlife populations with management. Controlling population growth using fertility control has been considered for almost four decades, but nearly all research has focused on understanding effects of fertility control agents on individual animals. Questions about the efficacy of fertility control as a way to control populations remain largely unanswered.Collateral consequences of contraception can produce unexpected changes in birth rates, survival, immigration and emigration that may reduce the effectiveness of regulating animal abundance. The magnitude and frequency of such effects vary with species-specific social and reproductive systems, as well as connectivity of populations. Developing models that incorporate static demographic parameters from populations not controlled by contraception may bias predictions of fertility control efficacy.Many population-level studies demonstrate that changes in survival and immigration induced by fertility control can compensate for the reduction in births caused by contraception. The most successful cases of regulating populations using fertility control come from applications of contraceptives to small, closed populations of gregarious and easily accessed species.Fertility control can result in artificial selection pressures on the population and may lead to long-term unintentional genetic consequences. The magnitude of such selection is dependent on individual heritability and behavioural traits, as well as environmental variation.Synthesis and applications. Understanding species' life-history strategies, biology, behavioural ecology and ecological context is critical to developing realistic expectations of regulating populations using fertility control. Before time, effort and funding are invested in wildlife contraception, managers may need to consider the possibility that many species and populations can compensate for reduction in fecundity, and this could minimize any reduction in population growth rate.

Fertility control to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts: a review

As human populations grow, conflicts with wildlife increase. Concurrently, concerns about the welfare, safety and environmental impacts of conventional lethal methods of wildlife management restrict the options available for conflict mitigation. In parallel, there is increasing interest in using fertility control to manage wildlife. The present review aimed at analysing trends in research on fertility control for wildlife, illustrating developments in fertility-control technologies and delivery methods of fertility-control agents, summarising the conclusions of empirical and theoretical studies of fertility control applied at the population level and offering criteria to guide decisions regarding the suitability of fertility control to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts. The review highlighted a growing interest in fertility control for wildlife, underpinned by increasing numbers of scientific studies. Most current practical applications of fertility control for wild mammals use injectable single-dose immunocontraceptive vaccines mainly aimed at sterilising females, although many of these vaccines are not yet commercially available. One oral avian contraceptive, nicarbazin, is commercially available in some countries. Potential new methods of remote contraceptive delivery include bacterial ghosts, virus-like particles and genetically modified transmissible and non-transmissible organisms, although none of these have yet progressed to field testing. In parallel, new species-specific delivery systems have been developed. The results of population-level studies of fertility control indicated that this approach may increase survival and affect social and spatial behaviour of treated animals, although the effects are species- and context-specific. The present studies suggested that a substantial initial effort is generally required to reduce population growth if fertility control is the sole wildlife management method. However, several empirical and field studies have demonstrated that fertility control, particularly of isolated populations, can be successfully used to limit population growth and reduce human–wildlife conflicts. In parallel, there is growing recognition of the possible synergy between fertility control and disease vaccination to optimise the maintenance of herd immunity in the management of wildlife diseases. The review provides a decision tree that can be used to determine whether fertility control should be employed to resolve specific human–wildlife conflicts. These criteria encompass public consultation, considerations about animal welfare and feasibility, evaluation of population responses, costs and sustainability.

Brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in metropolitan Sydney: population biology and response to Suprelorin contraceptive implants

The cohabitation of the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) with people in urban areas often causes conflict. Basic biological parameters are needed to evaluate potential new management options such as fertility control. This study investigated the biology of an urban brushtail possum population and the effects of Suprelorin contraceptive implants on individual females within that population. Trapping success remained constant over time, with 2.8 ± 0.2 individuals trapped per residential property. Recapture rates for males declined rapidly over time, with only 30% of males recaptured on the same property 12 months after initial capture (n = 30) and no males recaptured after 18 months (compared with female recapture rates of 58% after 18 months, n = 33). These data, combined with the preponderance of males observed within the lower age classes, suggests that male possum turnover is high within urban areas. This may be partially compensated for by the male-bias (1.8 : 1) observed in pouch young. Breeding was seasonal with the main peak of births in autumn, and a secondary smaller peak in spring. Suprelorin contraceptive treatment effectively inhibited reproduction in adult females for a minimum duration of 519 ± 7 (n = 5) and ≥700 ± 20 (n = 5) days after administration of one or two 4.7-mg implants, respectively, with no negative side-effects obvious. The concurrent collection of data on contraceptive efficacy and population-specific life-history parameters provides a unique opportunity to highlight the importance of understanding local population dynamics when evaluating the likely efficacy and implementation of fertility control programs to manage problem wildlife.

Optimising bait-station delivery of population-control agents to brushtail possums: field test of spatial model predictions

Context Low-volume control agents based on new biotechnologies are likely to be point-delivered to wildlife populations using devices such as bait stations. However, data and theory to underpin the development of strategies for such a use of bait stations are lacking. Aims In a large-scale replicated field trial of brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) populations, we estimated the levels of coverage achieved with bait-station grids at three densities (0.2, 0.6 and 1.0 ha–1), with and without pre-feeding, to test the predictions of an existing model of bait-station delivery based on relationships derived from leghold trapping. Methods We first marked possums using conventional capture–mark–recapture techniques, and then estimated population coverage by recovering animals poisoned by encapsulated cyanide delivered by the bait stations. Key results The two key model predictions, that 90% population coverage could be achieved at 0.6 bait stations per hectare and that pre-feeding was not required to achieve this level, were not upheld by the field trials. Instead, there was a poor fit between model predictions and observed levels of population coverage. An investigation of key model assumptions demonstrated issues with both model structure and parameterisation. Conclusions Neither previously documented relationships for possum interactions with leghold traps, nor correlations between possum interaction rates with such devices and bait stations, are generically applicable across all populations. Implications While the existing model of bait-station delivery to possums fits the data for some field operations and trials, it is not applicable to all populations. Incorporating habitat and seasonal effects on possum home-range behaviour could potentially improve model prediction. Our results also have implications for the accuracy of index-based methods of possum population monitoring that use leghold traps, such as the Residual Trap Catch Index.

Assessing the suitability of the parasitic nematode Parastrongyloides trichosuri as a vector for transmissible fertility control of brushtail possums in New Zealand - ecological and regulatory considerations

The suitability of the nematode Parastrongyloides trichosuri (Nematoda: Strongyloididae) as a genetically modified vector for transmissible fertility control of introduced brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) is being explored in New Zealand. This review of progress in assessing the ecological and epidemiological characteristics of P. trichosuri against a set of essential properties for a suitable transmissible vector indicates that the parasite appears to have all the attributes of a highly effective vector, although additional information on persistence at low host density and on the outcome of competition between existing infection and new (recombinant) strains is needed to confirm this. Concerns have been raised about risks to possums and other marsupials in Australia from a genetically modified form of P. trichosuri. An international body with responsibility for managing consultation and debate about issues arising from the proposed use of genetically modified organisms for vertebrate pest management has been suggested as a way of addressing such concerns. A key issue remains as to which agency or group of agencies would take responsibility for such a body. A joint meeting of relevant agencies and researchers is needed urgently to begin the process of moving this issue forward.

Prospects for the future: is there a role for virally vectored immunocontraception in vertebrate pest management?

Virally vectored immunocontraception (VVIC) has been studied and promoted as an alternative to lethal methods for vertebrate pest control in Australia and New Zealand. Virally vectored immunocontraception offers a potentially humane and species-specific control method with potential for a good benefit–cost outcome, but its applicability for broad-scale management remains unknown. We present case studies for the house mouse, European rabbit, red fox and common brushtail possum and describe the current status of research into the use of VVIC as a broad-scale pest-management tool. All case studies indicated that there are significant problems with delivery and efficacy. The current state of development suggests that VVIC is not presently a viable alternative for the management of these vertebrate pests, and it is highly unlikely that this will change in the foreseeable future. An absence of benefit–cost data also hinders decision-making, and until benefit–cost data become available it will not be clear if there are short- or long-term benefits resulting from the use of VVIC for broad-scale pest management.

Optimising bait-station delivery of fertility control agents to brushtail possum populations

Introduced Australian brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) are a major pest in New Zealand. Alternatives to current management by trapping and poisoning are being actively explored. The most effective scenario for the deployment of fertility control vaccines is the use of bait stations to maintain possum populations at low densities following their initial knockdown from high densities using conventional control tools. However, three field trials that estimated population coverage achievable by differing station layouts using dyed baits have produced conflicting results. To assess optimal vaccine-delivery strategies adequately we need meaningful a priori expectations of the level of population coverage achievable by differing bait station layouts and densities. To this end, we collated data on field operations in which bait stations were used to deliver acute toxins for lethal control of possum populations and constructed an individual-based spatially explicit stochastic model to simulate encounter rates between possums and bait stations. The model provided a reasonable fit to the data from both the acute toxin operations and two of the three dyed-bait trials. The third trial likely overestimated typical possum movement distances. Simulating vaccine delivery in the model demonstrated that grid densities of 0.6 bait stations ha–1 are predicted to be optimal, and prefeeding may not be necessary. The model strongly indicates that the effective delivery of fertility control will not be limited by our ability to deliver vaccine baits to possums. However, the exact strategy to employ will depend on three key characteristics of any vaccine – its expense relative to existing tools, its longevity in the field, and its efficacy at reducing female breeding success.

Application of pharmaceutical drug delivery for biological control of the common brushtail possum in New Zealand: a review

The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is the most significant vertebrate pest in New Zealand, being a major ecological threat to the indigenous biodiversity and an economic threat as a vector for bovine tuberculosis. Novel and effective strategies to reduce the population of T. vulpecula are needed urgently. Several biocontrol agents are currently being assessed and from research to date it is likely that the biocontrol agents will be peptide or protein molecules. It is not possible to administer such biocontrol agents alone because they would be degraded rapidly in the animal, especially if delivered orally. Technologies used in the pharmaceutical industry to design efficacious drug-delivery systems for humans and animals can be applied to the design of delivery systems for biocontrol agents used in wildlife management, although there are some unique challenges that must be overcome.