Biological control of mosquitoes and other biting flies by Bacillus sphaericus and Bacillus thuringiensis

Potential for Bacillus thuringiensis and Other Bacterial Toxins as Biological Control Agents to Combat Dipteran Pests of Medical and Agronomic Importance

The control of dipteran pests is highly relevant to humans due to their involvement in the transmission of serious diseases including malaria, dengue fever, Chikungunya, yellow fever, zika, and filariasis; as well as their agronomic impact on numerous crops. Many bacteria are able to produce proteins that are active against insect species. These bacteria include Bacillus thuringiensis, the most widely-studied pesticidal bacterium, which synthesizes proteins that accumulate in crystals with insecticidal properties and which has been widely used in the biological control of insects from different orders, including Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. In this review, we summarize all the bacterial proteins, from B. thuringiensis and other entomopathogenic bacteria, which have described insecticidal activity against dipteran pests, including species of medical and agronomic importance.

Evaluation of plant growth promotion properties and induction of antioxidative defense mechanism by tea rhizobacteria of Darjeeling, India

A total of 120 rhizobacteria were isolated from seven different tea estates of Darjeeling, West Bengal, India. Based on a functional screening of in vitro plant growth-promoting (PGP) activities, thirty potential rhizobacterial isolates were selected for in-planta evaluation of PGP activities in rice and maize crops. All the thirty rhizobacterial isolates were identified using partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Out of thirty rhizobacteria, sixteen (53.3%) isolates belong to genus Bacillus, five (16.6%) represent genus Staphylococcus, three (10%) represent genus Ochrobactrum, and one (3.3%) isolate each belongs to genera Pseudomonas, Lysinibacillus, Micrococcus, Leifsonia, Exiguobacterium, and Arthrobacter. Treatment of rice and maize seedlings with these thirty rhizobacterial isolates resulted in growth promotion. Besides, rhizobacterial treatment in rice triggered enzymatic [ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), chitinase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL)], and non-enzymatic [proline and polyphenolics] antioxidative defense reactions indicating their possible role in the reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) burden and thereby priming of plants towards stress mitigation. To understand such a possibility, we tested the effect of rhizobacterial consortia on biotic stress tolerance of rice against necrotrophic fungi, Rhizoctonia solani AG1-IA. Our results indicated that the pretreatment with rhizobacterial consortia increased resistance of the rice plants towards the common foliar pathogen like R. solani AG1-IA. This study supports the idea of the application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacterial consortia in sustainable crop practice through the management of biotic stress under field conditions.

vB_LspM-01: a novel myovirus displaying pseudolysogeny in Lysinibacillus sphaericus C3-41

Lysinibacillus sphaericus has great application potential not only in the biocontrol of mosquitoes but also in the bioremediation of toxic metals. Phages contribute to the genetic diversity and niche adaptation of bacteria, playing essential roles in their life cycle, but may also cause economic damage for industrially important bacteria through phage contamination during fermentation. In this study, the L. sphaericus phage vB_LspM-01, which belongs to the Myoviridae family, was isolated and characterized. Results showed that vB_LspM-01 could specifically infect most tested L. sphaericus isolates but was not active against isolates belonging to other species. Furthermore, phage-born endolysin exhibited a broader antimicrobial spectrum than the host range of the phage. The vB_LspM-01 genome had no obvious similarity with that of its host, and ca. 22.6% of putative ORFs could not get a match with the public databases. Phylogenic analysis based on the putative terminase large subunit showed high similarity with the phages identified with pac-type headful packaging. The vB_LspM-01 encoding genes were only detected in a tiny percentage of L. sphaericus C3-41 individual cells in the wild population, whereas they showed much higher frequency in the resistant population grown within the plaques; however, the phage genes could not be stably inherited during host cell division. Additionally, the vB_LspM-01 encoding genes were only detected in the host population during the logarithmic growth phase. The mitomycin C induction helped the propagation and lysogeny-lysis switch of vB_LspM-01. The study demonstrated that vB_LspM-01 can be present in a pseudolysogenic state in L. sphaericus C3-41 populations.

Highly toxic and broad-spectrum insecticidal local Bacillus strains engineered using protoplast fusion

Protoplast fusion was performed between a local Bacillus thuringiensis UV-resistant mutant 66/1a (Bt) and Bacillus sphaericus GHAI (Bs) to produce new Bacillus strains with a wider spectrum of action against different insects. Bt is characterized as sensitive to polymyxin and streptomycin and resistant to rifampicin and has shown 87% mortality against Spodoptera littoralis larvae at concentration of 1.5 × 10(7) cells/mL after 7 days of feeding; Bs is characterized as resistant to polymyxin and streptomycin and sensitive to rifampicin and has been shown to have 100% mortality against Culex pipiens after 1 day of feeding at the same concentration as that of Bt. Among a total of 64 Bt::Bs fusants produced on the selective medium containing polymyxin, streptomycin, and rifampicin, 17 fusants were selected because of their high mortality percentages against S. littoralis (Lepidoptera) and C. pipiens (Diptera). While Bt harboured 3 plasmids (600, 350, and 173 bp) and Bs had 2 plasmids (544 and 291 bp), all the selected fusants acquired plasmids from both parental strains. SDS-PAGE protein analysis of the 17 selected fusants and their parental strains confirmed that all fusant strains acquired and expressed many specific protein bands from the 2 parental strains, especially the larvicidal proteins to both lepidopteran and dipteran species with molecular masses of 65, 70, 80, 88, 100, and 135 kDa. Four protein bands with high molecular masses of 281, 263, 220, and 190 kDa, which existed in the Bt parental strain and did not exist in the Bs parental strain, and 2 other protein bands with high molecular masses of 185 and 180 kDa, which existed in the Bs parental strain and did not exist in the Bt parental strain, were expressed in most fusants. The results indicated the expression of some cry genes encoded for insecticidal crystal proteins from Bt and the binary toxin genes from Bs in all fusant strains. The recombinant fusants have more efficient and potential values for agricultural application compared with both the insecticidal Bt and the mosquitocidal Bs strains alone against S. littoralis and C. pipiens larvae, respectively.

Effects of Bacillus subtilis metabolites on larval Aedes aegypti L

The culture supernatant of a strain of Bacillus subtilis isolated from soil samples killed larvae of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. The metabolites produced by B. subtilis were characterized using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Mortality rate was dose-dependent for all larval instars of A. aegypti. Log probit analysis (95% confidence level) revealed an LC50 of 1.73 and an LC90 3.71μg/ml. Molecular weights/masses of B. subtilis metabolites were confirmed using SDS-PAGE analysis. B. subtilis metabolites were confirmed using HPLC analysis. We demonstrate that secondary metabolites from B. subtilis have larvicidal activity against A. aegypti and may be suitable for the control of this and other mosquito vectors of human disease. The larvae to the metabolites, significant reduction in the activities of acetylcholinesterse, α-carboxylesterase, and acid phosphatases were recorded.

Allelic diversity and population structure of Bacillus sphaericus as revealed by multilocus sequence typing

The genetic diversity of 35 Bacillus sphaericus strains was analyzed by a newly developed multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme, toxin gene pool survey, and mosquito bioassay. The results demonstrated that strains assigned to the same sequence type (ST) had the same occurrence of toxin genes. Further sequence analysis revealed that toxic strains presented a nearly clonal population structure, whereas nontoxic strains had a high level of heterogeneity and were significantly distinct from toxic strains.

Field evaluation of a previously untested strain of biolarvicide (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis H14) for mosquito control in an urban area of Orissa, India

A previously untested strain of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) serotype H14 (ID No. VCRC B17) has been evaluated under field conditions in an urban area of Rourkela city, India for its impact on the larval density of different mosquito species in a variety of habitats. The persistence of the biolarvicide used in an aqueous solution varied in different habitats. The lowest field application rate of 0.5 ml/m2 remained effective for about 10-12 days and provided 80-100% reduction in larval abundance of anopheline species, including Anopheles culicifacies breeding in unpolluted water bodies. However, in stagnant polluted waters in drains and cesspools supporting culicine breeding, the biocide at the same rate persists for 5-6 days only. An application rate of 1 ml/m2 to stagnant drains and cesspools, resulted in 84-100% reduction in the larval population of Culex quinquefasciatus over a period of 2 wk. Based on the field observations, an operational dose of 0.5 ml/m2 at fortnightly intervals is suggested for clean water sources supporting anopheline breeding. However, to control breeding of culicine mosquitoes in stagnant and polluted waters, an operational dose of 1 ml/m2 at fortnightly intervals is required. The study showed that Bti serotype H14 (VCRC B17) is a suitable biolarvicide that can be used against different mosquitoes in different types of urban habitats.

Complete genome sequence of the mosquitocidal bacterium Bacillus sphaericus C3-41 and comparison with those of closely related Bacillus species

Bacillus sphaericus strain C3-41 is an aerobic, mesophilic, spore-forming bacterium that has been used with great success in mosquito control programs worldwide. Genome sequencing revealed that the complete genome of this entomopathogenic bacterium is composed of a chromosomal replicon of 4,639,821 bp and a plasmid replicon of 177,642 bp, containing 4,786 and 186 potential protein-coding sequences, respectively. Comparison of the genome with other published sequences indicated that the B. sphaericus C3-41 chromosome is most similar to that of Bacillus sp. strain NRRL B-14905, a marine species that, like B. sphaericus, is unable to metabolize polysaccharides. The lack of key enzymes and sugar transport systems in the two bacteria appears to be the main reason for this inability, and the abundance of proteolytic enzymes and transport systems may endow these bacteria with exclusive metabolic pathways for a wide variety of organic compounds and amino acids. The genes shared between B. sphaericus C3-41 and Bacillus sp. strain NRRL B-14905, including mobile genetic elements, membrane-associated proteins, and transport systems, demonstrated that these two species are a biologically and phylogenetically divergent group. Knowledge of the genome sequence of B. sphaericus C3-41 thus increases our understanding of the bacilli and may also offer prospects for future genetic improvement of this important biological control agent.

A novel method for evaluating the particle distributional behavior of a spray-dried technical concentrate and a water-dispersible granule formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Israelensis in an aqueous column

A novel method for evaluating the particle behavior of a spray-dried technical concentrate and a water-dispersible granule (WDG) formulation of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis in an aqueous column was established. The objective was to determine the distributional behavior (minus any extraneous environmental factors) of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis within a water column over time. Studies showed a fairly even distribution of particles over a 16-h period for the technical concentrate and WDG formulation. The particle behavior of the WDG formulation also showed homogeneous distribution of particles at 64 and 128 h. The results demonstrated that Brownian motion plays a significant role in the particle distributional behavior of this entomopathogen.

Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus biopesticides production

The long residual action and toxicity of the chemical insecticides have brought about serious environmental problems such as the emergence and spread of insecticide resistance in many species of vectors, mammalian toxicity, and accumulation of pesticide residues in the food chain. All these problems have highlighted the need for alternative biological control agents. Entomo-pathogenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Bacillus sphaericus (Bs) are two safe biological control agents. They have attracted considerable interest as possible replacements for the chemical insecticides. Although microbial insecticides based on Bt and Bs are available for use, their high cost makes large-scale application impracticable in developing countries. This review focuses on the economic production of these two microorganisms by submerged fermentation and solid state fermentation using agro-industrial by-products and other wastes.

Mosquitocidal toxins, genes and bacteria: the hit squad

Certain entomopathogenic species of bacilli and Clostridium produce one or more toxins that kill mosquito larvae even at concentrations in the picomolar range. Altogether, 19 distinct genes are known that encode mosquitocidal toxins, which vary in their potency, species specificity and mode of action. Unlike chemical insecticides, mosquitocidal bacilli used as larvicides are safe for animals and the environment, and do not affect non-pest insects. Mosquitocidal bacteria are effective to varying degrees against Culex, Anopheles and Aedes mosquito larvae, but their rapid sedimentation from the larval feeding zone, UV-light sensitivity and narrow host range have hampered their development. New genetic engineering approaches are being investigated that could overcome these limitations and allow stable expression of broad host range combinations of toxins in UV-resistant, buoyant recombinant bacteria, as discussed here by Alan Porter.

Trends in dengue diagnosis

The conventional diagnosis of dengue virus infections includes the detection of the virus in serum or tissue samples, both by isolation in culture or through detection of specific viral molecules (genome RNA or dengue antigens) and detection of specific anti-dengue antibodies (serology). Isolation of dengue virus provides the most direct and conclusive approach to diagnosis, despite the demand for high-level equipment, technical skills and manpower. However, it is useless in early diagnosis because several days are required to isolate and classify the virus. Serology, despite being simpler, is not able to afford an accurate early diagnosis in primary infections because 4-5 days are required for the immune system to produce a sufficient amount of antibodies. Moreover, it leads to misleading results in secondary infections owing to cross-reactivity among serotype-specific antibodies and with other flavivirus antibodies. The RT-PCR and other PCR-based techniques are fast, serotype-discriminating, more sensitive and easier to carry out than conventional nucleic-acid hybridisation, but are handicapped by easy sample contamination and high technological demands. Recently, advances in bioelectronics have generated commercial kits and new techniques for detection of dengue antibodies and RNA, based on biosensor technology. Most of them are rapid, easy to operate, reusable, cheap, sensitive and serotype-specific. Nevertheless, their accuracy is still questionable because most still lack validation and standardisation. This review summarises and describes the techniques currently employed and anticipated in the near future for diagnosis of dengue disease.

Novel cost-effective method of screening soils for the presence of mosquito-pathogenic bacilli

AIMS

The aim was to simplify the cumbersome conventional process of isolating virulent bacilli, which involves isolating all bacilli strains from a source followed by screening for strains that are effective for bio-control of mosquito vectors.

METHODS

A new simplified technique involving eight steps was devised for screening soil samples for the presence of mosquito-pathogenic bacilli before isolating individual strains.

RESULTS

Using the new technique, we obtained eight bacilli strains (KSD1-8) showing pathogenic activity against mosquito larvae from three out of 10 soil samples screened. These strains were characterized, identified and the main bioassay tests were performed with three most promising strains (KSD-4, KSD-7 and KSD-8), and their pathogenic activity against Anopheles stephensi Liston, Culex quinquefasciatus, Say and Aedes aegypti Linnaeus compared well with commercial reference strains of B. thuringiensis israelensis and B. sphaericus.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The new technique of screening soil samples for the presence of virulent pathogenic strains of bacilli against mosquito larvae proved quick, efficient and cost effective.

Development of a large-scale biocalorimeter to monitor and control bioprocesses

Calorimetry has shown real potential at bench-scale for chemical and biochemical processes. The aim of this work was therefore to scale-up the system by adaptation of a standard commercially available 300-L pilot-scale bioreactor. To achieve this, all heat flows entering or leaving the bioreactor were identified and the necessary instrumentation implemented to enable on-line monitoring and dynamic heat balance estimation. Providing that the signals are sufficiently precise, such a heat balance would enable calculation of the heat released or taken up during an operational (bio)process. Two electrical Wattmeters were developed, the first for determination of the power consumption by the stirrer motor and the second for determination of the power released by an internal calibration heater. Experiments were designed to optimize the temperature controller of the bioreactor such that it was sufficiently rapid so as to enable the heat accumulation terms to be neglected. Further calibration experiments were designed to correlate the measured stirring power to frictional heat losses of the stirrer into the reaction mass. This allows the quantitative measurement of all background heat flows and the on-line quantitative calculation of the (bio)process power. Three test fermentations were then performed with B. sphaericus 1593M, a spore-forming bacterium pathogenic to mosquitoes. A first batch culture was performed on a complex medium, to enable optimization of the calorimeter system. A second batch culture, on defined medium containing three carbon sources, was used to show the fast, accurate response of the heat signal and the ability to perfectly monitor the different growth phases associated with growth on mixed substrates, in particular when carbon sources became depleted. A maximum heat output of 1100 W was measured at the end of the log-phase. A fed-batch culture on the same defined medium was then carried out with the feed rate controlled as a function of the calorimeter signal. A maximum heat output of 2250 W was measured at the end of the first log-phase. This work demonstrates that real-time quantitative calorimetry is not only possible at pilot-scale, but could be readily applied at even larger scales. The technique requires simple, readily available devices for determination of the few necessary heat flows, making it a robust, cost-effective technique for process development and routine monitoring and control of production processes.

Tightly bound binary toxin in the cell wall of Bacillus sphaericus

We have shown that urea-extracted cell wall of entomopathogenic Bacillus sphaericus 2297 and some other strains is a potent larvicide against Culex pipiens mosquitoes, with 50% lethal concentrations comparable to that of the well-known B. sphaericus binary toxin, with which it acts synergistically. The wall toxicity develops in B. sphaericus 2297 cultures during the late logarithmic stage, earlier than the appearance of the binary toxin crystal. It disappears with sporulation when the binary toxin activity reaches its peak. Disruption of the gene for the 42-kDa protein (P42) of the binary toxin abolishes both cell wall toxicity and crystal formation. However, the cell wall of B. sphaericus 2297, lacking P42, kills C. pipiens larvae when mixed with Escherichia coli cells expressing P42. Thus, the cell wall toxicity in strongly toxic B. sphaericus strains must be attributed to the presence in the cell wall of tightly bound 51-kDa (P51) and P42 binary toxin proteins. The synergism between binary toxin crystals and urea-treated cell wall preparations reflects suboptimal distribution of binary toxin subunits in both compartments. Binary toxin crystal is slightly deficient in P51, while cell wall is lacking in P42.

A strain of Bacillus sphaericus causes slower development of resistance in Culex quinquefasciatus

Two field-collected Culex quinquefasciatus colonies were subjected to selection pressure by three strains of Bacillus sphaericus, C3-41, 2362, and IAB59, under laboratory conditions. After 13 and 18 generations of exposure to high concentrations of C3-41 and IAB59, a field-collected low-level-resistant colony developed >144,000- and 46.3-fold resistance to strains C3-41 and IAB59, respectively. A field-collected susceptible colony was selected with 2362 and IAB59 for 46 and 12 generations and attained >162,000- and 5.7-fold resistance to the two agents, respectively. The pattern of resistance evolution in mosquitoes depended on continuous selection pressure, and the stronger the selection pressure, the more quickly resistance developed. The resistant colonies obtained after selection with B. sphaericus C3-41 and 2362 showed very high levels of cross-resistance to B. sphaericus 2362 and C3-41, respectively, but they displayed only low-level cross-resistance to IAB59. On the other hand, the IAB59-selected colonies had high cross-resistance to both strains C3-41 and 2362. Additionally, the slower evolution of resistance against strain IAB59 may be explained by the presence of another larvicidal factor. This is in agreement with the nontoxicity of the cloned and purified binary toxin (Bin1) of IAB59 for 2362-resistant larvae. We also verified that all the B. sphaericus-selected colonies showed no cross-resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis, suggesting that it would be a promising alternative in managing resistance to B. sphaericus in C. quinquefasciatus larvae.

Production of asporogenous mutants of Bacillus sphaericus 2362 in continuous culture

AIMS

To report the production of asporogenous mutants (Spo-) of Bacillus sphaericus 2362 in continuous culture.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Microbial culture samples were taken at 0.05 h-1 dilution rate and plated out on nutrient agar plates. Translucent colonies were obtained with vegetative morphology under phase contrast microscope. Heat resistance evaluations at different temperature settings showed that the Spo- mutants had lower heat resistance than the Spo+ wild type. Western blots analyses carried out on both wild type and the mutants indicated the presence of binary protein toxins of 42 and 51 kDa in both. Bioassays carried out on the wild type and the Spo- mutants against mosquitoes showed the mutants to be 100-fold less toxic in comparison to the wild type.

CONCLUSION

Existence and production of asporogenous mutants of Bacillus sphaericus 2362 in continuous culture at low dilution rates is demonstrated by this study. The organism's ability to produce toxins appears to be significantly reduced by the mutational process.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The production of asporogenous mutants had not been reported previously among strains of Bacillus sphaericus. The present report on the toxigenic capability of asporogenous mutants also raises the possibility of using continuous culture to significantly improve the productivity of toxin production in future.

Current status of malaria and potential for control

Malaria remains one of the world's worst health problems with 1.5 to 2.7 million deaths annually; these deaths are primarily among children under 5 years of age and pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa. Of significance, more people are dying from malaria today than 30 years ago. This review considers the factors which have contributed to this gloomy picture, including those which relate to the vector, the female anopheline mosquito; to human activity such as creating new mosquito breeding sites, the impact of increased numbers of people, and how their migratory behavior can increase the incidence and spread of malaria; and the problems of drug resistance by the parasites to almost all currently available antimalarial drugs. In a selective manner, this review describes what is being done to ameliorate this situation both in terms of applying existing methods in a useful or even crucial role in control and prevention and in terms of new additions to the antimalarial armory that are being developed. Topics covered include biological control of mosquitoes, the use of insecticide-impregnated bed nets, transgenic mosquitoes manipulated for resistance to malaria parasites, old and new antimalarial drugs, drug resistance and how best to maintain the useful life of antimalarials, immunity to malaria and the search for antimalarial vaccines, and the malaria genome project and the potential benefits to accrue from it.

Transcription of the insecticidal crystal protein genes of Bacillus thuringiensis

Production of a large amount of insecticidal crystal proteins encoded on large plasmids is largely dependent upon the mother cell, Bacillus thuringiensis (B. thuringiensis, also Bt), specific transcription systems attributable to sporulation. In the middle stages of sporulation, cry4A is most actively transcribed from the promoter cry4A-P1. The proximal transcriptional start point of cry4A, which is under the control of the promoter P1, is used in Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) in the middle stage of sporulation. The nucleotide sequence that determines the cry4A-P1 promoter is homologous to the consensus sequence for the promoter of sigma E-specific genes in B. subtilis, and to those promoters of the insecticidal protein genes that are efficiently transcribed in vitro with the RNA polymerase E sigma 35 isolated from B. thuringiensis. The sigma factor sigma 35 of B. thuringiensis is highly homologous and functionally equivalent to sigma E of B. subtilis. These results suggest that the cry4A transcription from P1 is under the control of sigma E in B. subtilis, and under the control of sigma 35 in B. thuringiensis.

Construction of chromosomal integrants of Bacillus sphaericus 2362 by conjugation with Escherichia coli

IncP-based plasmids conjugated between Escherichia coli and mosquitocidal strains of Bacillus sphaericus at frequencies of 10(-7) to 10(-9) per recipient. Plasmid transfer was most efficient when a restriction-deficient strain of B. sphaericus 2362 (serotype 5a5b) was used as recipient and was least efficient with recipients from serotypes 1a and 2a2b. A deleted version of the cryptic locus 'gene 80' from strain 2362 was cloned into the suicide vector pMTL30, which could not replicate in B. sphaericus to provide a site for chromosomal integration. Conjugational transfer from E. coli and integration into the B. sphaericus recipient chromosome was achieved with this construct. The coding region of the cry11A gene from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis was PCR-amplified and fused to the promoter of the crystal protein (Bin) gene of B. sphaericus 2362. This construct was cloned into the integrative vector, conjugated with B. sphaericus 2362 and chromosomal integrants were recovered which harboured the cry11A gene. The fusion gene was efficiently transcribed in the recombinant host, but cells failed to accumulate appreciable amounts of Cry11A toxin. This system offers a simple and efficient means of transferring plasmids into B. sphaericus and obtaining chromosomal integration for strain construction and gene analysis.

Impact of bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis On larvae of chironomus thummi thummi and psectrocladius psilopterus (Diptera: chironomidae)

Chironomid larvae, especially species of the subfamily Chironominae, are known to be sensitive to the mosquitocidal bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.). In this study, bioassays and electron microscopic investigations were carried out with third- and fourth-instar larvae of Chironomus thummi thummi Kieffer (subfamily Chironominae) and Psectrocladius psilopterus Kieffer (subfamily Orthocladiinae) in order to study the sensitivity of species belonging to different chironomid subfamilies. Both species showed susceptibility to increased B.t.i. concentrations, with LC50 values (24 h) ranging from about 40- to 60-fold the LC50 for Aedes aegypti (LC50 (24 h) is 0.77 mg/L for C. thummi thummi and 1.17 mg/L for P. psilopterus). C. thummi thummi was shown to be twice as sensitive as P. psilopterus. Ultrastructural investigations of the anterior midgut showed cellular alterations in larvae exposed to a high B.t.i. concentration (2.8 mg/L, about 50-fold the LC50 for A. aegypti), such as swelling of mitochondria, dilatation of intercellular spaces and basal labyrinth, fenestration or disorganization of the Golgi complex, concentric arrangement of rough endoplasmic reticulum, and an increase of lysosomes and myelin figures. Electron-lucent regions within the cell, cell protrusion, and, in some cases, swelling or lysis of cells were further effects observed in treated animals. Most effects were found in both species, though they seemed to be more severe in C. thummi thummi. The alterations coincide with those known from target organisms (Culicidae, Simuliidae). This study shows that there is a difference in sensitivity to B.t.i. between chironomid species from different subfamilies and that the susceptibility of chironomid larvae to the bacterial toxins is due to damage of the midgut epithelium as it is in target organisms. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

Production of Cry11A and Cry11Ba toxins in Bacillus sphaericus confers toxicity towards Aedes aegypti and resistant Culex populations

Cry11A from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis and Cry11Ba from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. jegathesan were introduced, separately and in combination, into the chromosome of Bacillus sphaericus 2297 by in vivo recombination. Two loci on the B. sphaericus chromosome were chosen as target sites for recombination: the binary toxin locus and the gene encoding the 36-kDa protease that may be responsible for the cleavage of the Mtx protein. Disruption of the protease gene did not increase the larvicidal activity of the recombinant strain against Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens. Synthesis of the Cry11A and Cry11Ba toxins made the recombinant strains toxic to A. aegypti larvae to which the parental strain was not toxic. The strain containing Cry11Ba was more toxic than strains containing the added Cry11A or both Cry11A and Cry11Ba. The production of the two toxins together with the binary toxin did not significantly increase the toxicity of the recombinant strain to susceptible C. pipiens larvae. However, the production of Cry11A and/or Cry11Ba partially overcame the resistance of C. pipiens SPHAE and Culex quinquefasciatus GeoR to B. sphaericus strain 2297.

Improvement of Bacillus sphaericus toxicity against dipteran larvae by integration, via homologous recombination, of the Cry11A toxin gene from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis

Integrative plasmids were constructed to enable integration of foreign DNA into the chromosome of Bacillus sphaericus 2297 by in vivo recombination. Integration of the aphA3 kanamycin resistance gene by a two-step procedure demonstrated that this strategy was applicable with antibiotic resistance selection. Hybridization experiments evidenced two copies of the operon encoding the binary toxin from B. sphaericus in the recipient strain. The Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis cry11Aal gene (referred to as cry11A), encoding a delta-endotoxin with toxicity against Culex, Aedes, and Anopheles larvae, was integrated either by a single crossover event [strain 2297 (::pHT5601), harboring the entire recombinant plasmid] or by two successive crossover events [strain 2297 (::cry11A)]. The level of the Cry11A production in B. sphaericus was high; two crystalline inclusions were produced in strain 2297 (::pHT5601). Synthesis of the Cry11A toxin conferred toxicity to the recombinant strains against Aedes aegypti larvae, for which the parental strain was not toxic. Interestingly, the level of larvicidal activity of strain 2297 (::pHT5601) against Anopheles stephensi was as high as that of B. thuringiensis subsp. israelensis and suggested synergy between the B. thuringiensis and B. sphaericus toxins. The toxicities of parental and recombinant B. sphaericus strains against Culex quinquefasciatus were similar, but the recombinant strains killed the larvae more rapidly. The production of the Cry11A toxin in B. sphaericus also partially restored toxicity for C. quinquefasciatus larvae from a population resistant to B. sphaericus 1593. In vivo recombination therefore appears to be a promising approach to the creation of new B. sphaericus strains for vector control.

Efficient synthesis of mosquitocidal toxins in Asticcacaulis excentricus demonstrates potential of gram-negative bacteria in mosquito control

The control of mosquitoes with chemical insecticides pollutes the environment and leads to resistance in mosquito populations. Bacterial control of mosquito larvae with Bacillus sphaericus and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis, which produce protein toxins, has proved useful, safe, and nonpolluting. These bacteria do, however, suffer from disadvantages, including rapid setting, UV sensitivity, and lack of persistance of spores, proteolysis of toxins, narrow host range, and high production costs. Here we show that the Gram-negative bacterium Asticcacaulis excentricus is a promising host for delivering toxins to mosquito larvae. Plasmid-transformed A. excentricus cells expressing the binary toxin of B. sphaericus exhibited toxicity to Culex and Anopheles mosquito larvae similar to that of the high-toxicity strains of B. sphaericus which produce several toxins. A. excentricus has potential advantages as a larvicide compared with the bacilli, especially persistance in the larval feeding zone, resistance to UV light, lack of toxin-degrading proteases, and low production costs.

Efficient expression of a 100-kilodalton mosquitocidal toxin in protease-deficient recombinant Bacillus sphaericus

The expression of the 100-kDa mosquitocidal toxin (Mtx) during vegetative growth and sporulation in nine different mosquito-larvicidal strains of Bacillus sphaericus has been analyzed. In five out of the nine strains the 100-kDa toxin was found to be expressed predominantly in the vegetative phase of growth, and in all nine strains the level of the toxin in sporulated cells was very low or undetectable. Strains in four out of the six DNA homology groups of B. sphaericus produced intracellular and extracellular proteases, which degraded the 100-kDa toxin, during sporulation. The 100-kDa toxin gene was expressed by using its native promoter on a multicopy number plasmid in B. sphaericus 1693 (protease negative) and B. sphaericus 13052 (protease positive). High levels of the 100-kDa toxin were produced in vegetative cells of both strains as well as in sporulated cells of protease-negative strain 1693, which is in contrast to the low levels of the 100-kDa toxin produced in sporulated cells of protease-positive strain 13052. Thus, the small amount of the 100-kDa toxin in sporulated cells of the nine mosquito-larvicidal strains is probably due to degradation of the 100-kDa toxin synthesized during vegetative growth by a protease(s) produced during sporulation. B. sphaericus 1693 transformed with the 100-kDa toxin gene was as toxic to mosquito larvae during both vegetative growth and sporulation as the natural high-toxicity strains of sporulated B. sphaericus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

ssp genes and spore osmotolerance in Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus

It was shown previously that spores and vegetative cells of Bacillus sphaericus (Bf) and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) are very sensitive to osmotic variations. Since spore osmotolerance has been associated with their SASP (small acid soluble spore proteins) content coded by ssp genes, hybridization assays were performed with sspE and sspA genes from B. subtilis as probes and showed that Bti and Bf strains could lack an sspE-like gene. The B. subtilis sspE gene was then introduced into Bti 4Q2 strain; spores were obtained and showed a 65 to 650 times higher level of osmotolerance to NaCl, without affecting other important properties: hypoosmotic resistance in vegetative cells, spore UV resistance, and larvicidal activity against diptera larvae.

Bacillus thuringiensis growth and toxicity. Basic and applied considerations

Despite the known importance of the composition of culture media and culture conditions on Bacillus thuringiensis growth and toxicity, very few reviews are concerned with this subject. This article reviews some aspects of the microbiology of Bacillus thuringiensis, and how toxicity is affected by the composition of growth media and bioreactor operation.