Simple characterisation of a deformable mirror inside a high numerical aperture microscope using phase diversity

Phase diversity-based wavefront sensing for fluorescence microscopy

Fluorescence microscopy is an invaluable tool in biology, yet its performance is compromised when the wavefront of light is distorted due to optical imperfections or the refractile nature of the sample. Such optical aberrations can dramatically lower the information content of images by degrading image contrast, resolution, and signal. Adaptive optics (AO) methods can sense and subsequently cancel the aberrated wavefront, but are too complex, inefficient, slow, or expensive for routine adoption by most labs. Here we introduce a rapid, sensitive, and robust wavefront sensing scheme based on phase diversity, a method successfully deployed in astronomy but underused in microscopy. Our method enables accurate wavefront sensing to less than λ/35 root mean square (RMS) error with few measurements, and AO with no additional hardware besides a corrective element. After validating the method with simulations, we demonstrate calibration of a deformable mirror > 100-fold faster than comparable methods (corresponding to wavefront sensing on the ~100 ms scale), and sensing and subsequent correction of severe aberrations (RMS wavefront distortion exceeding λ/2), restoring diffraction-limited imaging on extended biological samples.

Adaptive optics for optical microscopy [Invited]

Optical microscopy is widely used to visualize fine structures. When applied to bioimaging, its performance is often degraded by sample-induced aberrations. In recent years, adaptive optics (AO), originally developed to correct for atmosphere-associated aberrations, has been applied to a wide range of microscopy modalities, enabling high- or super-resolution imaging of biological structure and function in complex tissues. Here, we review classic and recently developed AO techniques and their applications in optical microscopy.

High-NA open-top selective-plane illumination microscopy for biological imaging

Selective-plane illumination microscopy (SPIM) provides unparalleled advantages for the volumetric imaging of living organisms over extended times. However, the spatial configuration of a SPIM system often limits its compatibility with many widely used biological sample holders such as multi-well chambers and plates. To solve this problem, we developed a high numerical aperture (NA) open-top configuration that places both the excitation and detection objectives on the opposite of the sample coverglass. We carried out a theoretical calculation to analyze the structure of the system-induced aberrations. We then experimentally compensated the system aberrations using adaptive optics combined with static optical components, demonstrating near-diffraction-limited performance in imaging fluorescently labeled cells.

Pulse front adaptive optics in two-photon microscopy

Adaptive optics has been extensively studied for the correction of phase front aberrations in optical systems. In systems using ultrafast lasers, distortions can also exist in the pulse front (contour of constant intensity in space and time), but until now their correction has been mostly unexplored due to technological limitations. In this Letter, we apply newly developed pulse front adaptive optics, for the first time to our knowledge, to practical compensation of a two-photon fluorescence microscope. With adaptive correction of the system-induced pulse front distortion, improvements beyond conventional phase correction are demonstrated.

Modal-based phase retrieval for adaptive optics

We consider using phase retrieval (PR) to correct phase aberrations in an optical system. Three measurements of the point-spread function (PSF) are collected to estimate an aberration. For each measurement, a different defocus aberration is applied with a deformable mirror (DM). Once the aberration is estimated using a PR algorithm, we apply the aberration correction with the DM, and measure the residual aberration using a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. The extended Nijboer-Zernike theory is used for modelling the PSF. The PR problem is solved using both an algorithm called PhaseLift, which is based on matrix rank minimization, and another algorithm based on alternating projections. For comparison, we include the results achieved using a classical PR algorithm, which is based on alternating projections and uses the fast Fourier transform.

Quantitative pupil analysis in stimulated emission depletion microscopy using phase retrieval

The resolution attainable with stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy greatly depends on the quality of the STED laser focus. So far, visual inspection of a measured STED focus has been the only convenient means of gauging the source of aberrations. Here we describe a method, requiring no instrument modifications, for obtaining an equivalent to the complex pupil function at the back aperture of the objective and show that it provides quantitative information about aberration sources (including aberrations induced by the objective or sample). We show the accuracy of this field representation to be sufficient for reconstructing the STED focus in three dimensions and determining corrective steps.

Accuracy of correction in modal sensorless adaptive optics

We investigate theoretically and experimentally the parameters governing the accuracy of correction in modal sensorless adaptive optics for microscopy. On the example of two-photon fluorescence imaging, we show that using a suitable number of measurements, precise correction can be obtained for up to 2 radians rms aberrations without optimising the aberration modes used for correction. We also investigate the number of photons required for accurate correction when signal acquisition is shot-noise limited. We show that only 10(4) to 10(5) photons are required for complete correction so that the correction process can be implemented with limited extra-illumination and associated photoperturbation. Finally, we provide guidelines for implementing an optimal correction algorithm depending on the experimental conditions.