Geostatistical genetic analysis for inferring the dispersal pattern of a partially clonal species: example of the chestnut blight fungus

Microsatellite Analysis Revealing High Genetic Diversity of the Chestnut Blight Fungus in South Tyrol (Northern Italy)

Cryphonectria parasitica, which causes chestnut blight, is one of the most important pathogens of forest trees. In Europe, mycovirus-mediated biocontrol is the most efficient method to control the disease but can be impeded by the lack of information about the population structure of the fungus within a region. In particular, sexual reproduction and the new introduction of the pathogen can complicate biocontrol strategies. For this reason, this study aimed to determine the population structure of C. parasitica, which causes chestnut blight, in the northern Italian region of South Tyrol, using eleven multilocus microsatellite markers. Fifty-one haplotypes were found across South Tyrol, belonging to three divergent clusters. Recombinant genotypes demonstrated that sexual reproduction occurs across the different clusters. The most dominant genotypes in the region were also the most dominant in neighboring areas, such as Switzerland, northern Italy and France. All of the clusters from South Tyrol were related to the Italian genotype pool and are thought to have been introduced from northern Italian and other European populations due to naturally occurring gene flow or human-mediated introduction. At least three separate introduction events of C. parasitica might have happened in South Tyrol that could be separated by time. This study demonstrated a high genetic diversity of C. parasitica in South Tyrol and helped to shed light on the sexual reproduction and introduction events in the local populations.

The impact of parasitism on resource allocation in a fungal host: the case of Cryphonectria parasitica and its mycovirus, Cryphonectria Hypovirus 1

Parasites are known to profoundly affect resource allocation in their host. In order to investigate the effects of Cryphonectria Hypovirus 1 (CHV1) on the life-history traits of its fungal host Cryphonectria parasitica, an infection matrix was completed with the cross-infection of six fungal isolates by six different viruses. Mycelial growth, asexual sporulation, and spore size were measured in the 36 combinations, for which horizontal and vertical transmission of the viruses was also assessed. As expected by life-history theory, a significant negative correlation was found between host somatic growth and asexual reproduction in virus-free isolates. Interestingly this trade-off was found to be positive in infected isolates, illustrating the profound changes in host resource allocation induced by CHV1 infection. A significant and positive relationship was also found in infected isolates between vertical transmission and somatic growth. This last relationship suggests that in this system, high levels of virulence could be detrimental to the vertical transmission of the parasite. Those results underscore the interest of studying host-parasite interaction within the life-history theory framework, which might permit a more accurate understanding of the nature of the modifications triggered by parasite infection on host biology.

Genetic analysis reveals efficient sexual spore dispersal at a fine spatial scale in Armillaria ostoyae, the causal agent of root-rot disease in conifers

Armillaria ostoyae (sometimes named Armillaria solidipes) is a fungal species causing root diseases in numerous coniferous forests of the northern hemisphere. The importance of sexual spores for the establishment of new disease centres remains unclear, particularly in the large maritime pine plantations of southwestern France. An analysis of the genetic diversity of a local fungal population distributed over 500 ha in this French forest showed genetic recombination between genotypes to be frequent, consistent with regular sexual reproduction within the population. The estimated spatial genetic structure displayed a significant pattern of isolation by distance, consistent with the dispersal of sexual spores mostly at the spatial scale studied. Using these genetic data, we inferred an effective density of reproductive individuals of 0.1-0.3 individuals/ha, and a second moment of parent-progeny dispersal distance of 130-800 m, compatible with the main models of fungal spore dispersal. These results contrast with those obtained for studies of A. ostoyae over larger spatial scales, suggesting that inferences about mean spore dispersal may be best performed at fine spatial scales (i.e. a few kilometres) for most fungal species.

What was old is new again: thermal adaptation within clonal lineages during range expansion in a fungal pathogen

Range-expanding species are expected to gain an increasing importance in the context of global change. They provide a great opportunity to study contemporary evolutionary changes and to unravel the mechanisms of evolution. Cryphonectria parasitica, the causal agent of chestnut blight, originating from Asia, has been spread since the beginning of the 20th century into different continents. We took advantage of the C. parasitica recent emergence in northern France to study the changes in population genetic structure and in phenotypic traits along this colonization and climatic gradient. Four hundred twenty-seven C. parasitica isolates were sampled in 47 chestnut sites in northern France. The C. parasitica outbreak in the north was found to be due to the expansion of five dominant clonal groups from southern France and to the emergence of a few rare recombined genotypes. The evolutionary changes during C. parasitica range expansion were studied by analysing phenotypic changes in isolates from the same clonal lineage, with or without a geographic shift. Growth rates were assessed in vitro, at four temperatures. The northern isolates grew faster at 12 and 15 °C and more slowly at 28 and 32 °C than the southern isolates. These results strongly suggest local adaptation to low temperatures in C. parasitica, with a trade-off of slower growth at high temperatures. They also reflect the high evolutionary potential of C. parasitica along a colonization gradient and show that clonal evolution is not a limitation for the rapid thermal adaptation of this invasive fungal species.

Host phenology and geography as drivers of differentiation in generalist fungal mycoparasites

The question as to why parasites remain generalist or become specialist is a key unresolved question in evolutionary biology. Ampelomyces spp., intracellular mycoparasites of powdery mildew fungi, which are themselves plant pathogens, are a useful model for studies of this issue. Ampelomyces is used for the biological control of mildew. Differences in mycohost phenology promote temporal isolation between sympatric Ampelomyces mycoparasites. Apple powdery mildew (APM) causes spring epidemics, whereas other powdery mildew species on plants other than apple cause epidemics later in the season. This has resulted in genetic differentiation between APM and non-APM strains. It is unclear whether there is genetic differentiation between non-APM Ampelomyces lineages due to their specialization on different mycohosts. We used microsatellites to address this question and found no significant differentiation between non-APM Ampelomyces strains from different mycohosts or host plants, but strong differentiation between APM and non-APM strains. A geographical structure was revealed in both groups, with differences between European countries, demonstrating restricted dispersal at the continent scale and a high resolution for our markers. We found footprints of recombination in both groups, possibly more frequent in the APM cluster. Overall, Ampelomyces thus appears to be one of the rare genuine generalist pathogenic fungi able to parasitize multiple hosts in natural populations. It is therefore an excellent model for studying the evolution of pathogens towards a generalist rather than host-specific strategy, particularly in light of the tritrophic interaction between Ampelomyces mycoparasites, their powdery mildew fungal hosts and the mildew host plants.

Multiple introductions and recombination in Cryphonectria hypovirus 1: perspective for a sustainable biological control of chestnut blight

Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV1) is a mycovirus which decreases the virulence of its fungal host Cryphonectria parasitica, the causal agent of chestnut blight recently introduced in Europe. The understanding of the evolutionary processes which have shaped CHV1 populations in Europe is required to develop a sustainable biocontrol strategy targeting chestnut blight and effective in European chestnut forests. To retrace the evolutionary history of CHV1, we analyzed sequences from two genomic regions on a collection of 55 CHV1 strains from France and northern Spain, two countries where multiple introductions of C. parasitica occurred. Several recombination events and variable selection pressures contributed to CHV1 evolution, agreeing with a non-clock-like diversification rate. These two mechanisms may be at the origin of CHV1 population diversity observed in western Europe. Considering the actual prevalence of CHV1 and its association with host genotypes, multiple introductions of CHV1 may have occurred in Europe, some of them directly from Asia and some of them through North America. Although some viral strains remained with low frequency in their introduction area, multiple infections might have allowed homologous recombination within parental sequences. Some of these recombinant lineages are associated with the spread of CHV1 in European regions.

Genetic diversification of the chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica and its associated hypovirus in Germany

Chestnut blight in south-western Germany was first reported in 1992 and is since expanding in distribution. Here we investigated the invasion history of Cryphonectria parasitica and its associated hypovirus. For this, we characterized 284 isolates collected between 1992 and 2012 for hypovirulence, vegetative compatibility (vc), mating type, and microsatellite haplotype. A total of 27 haplotypes and 15 vc types were observed, although the C. parasitica population analyzed is currently dominated to 50 % by one haplotype and to 64 % by the vc type EU-2. Structure analysis indicated two divergent genetic pools. Over 66 % of the haplotypes belonged to a pool probably originating from northern Italy. Further diversification is expected due to ongoing sexual recombination, but also to new migration and additional introductions. Cryphonectria hypovirus 1 (CHV-1) was found in four of five C. parasitica populations from Baden-Württemberg. Genetic analysis of the 35 CHV-1 isolates obtained revealed that they all belong to the German subtype, although they have clearly diverged from the first German hypovirus isolated in 1992. Our study suggests that C. parasitica has been introduced into Germany several times from two different gene pools, whereas the hypovirus most probably has a single origin.

Fine-scale spatial genetic structure of the black truffle (Tuber melanosporum) investigated with neutral microsatellites and functional mating type genes

The genetic structure of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal populations results from both vegetative and sexual propagation. In this study, we have analysed the spatial genetic structure of Tuber melanosporum populations, a heterothallic ascomycete that produces edible fruit bodies. Ectomycorrhizas from oaks and hazels from two orchards were mapped and genotyped using simple sequence repeat markers and the mating type locus. The distribution of the two T. melanosporum mating types was also monitored in the soil. In one orchard, the genetic profiles of the ascocarps were compared with those of the underlying mycorrhizas. A pronounced spatial genetic structure was found. The maximum genet sizes were 2.35 and 4.70 m in the two orchards, with most manifesting a size < 1 m. Few genets persisted throughout two seasons. A nonrandom distribution pattern of the T. melanosporum was observed, resulting in field patches colonized by genets that shared the same mating types. Our findings suggest that competition occurs between genets and provide basic information on T. melanosporum propagation patterns that are relevant for the management of productive truffle orchards.

Novel insights into the emergence of pathogens: the case of chestnut blight

Exotic, invasive pathogens have emerged repeatedly and continue to emerge to threaten the world's forests. Ecosystem structure and function can be permanently changed when keystone tree species such as the American chestnut (Castanea dentata) are eliminated from a whole range by disease. The fungal ascomycete pathogen Cryphonectria parasitica is responsible for causing chestnut blight. Once the pathogen was introduced into the Eastern US, where chestnuts were predominant, chestnuts were all but eliminated. This pathogen is currently causing extensive damage in Europe. A study in this issue of Molecular Ecology sheds new light on the pattern and process of emergence of this devastating plant pathogen (Dutech et al. 2012). The authors used microsatellite markers to investigate the evolutionary history of C. parasitica populations introduced into North America and Europe. To infer sources of migrants and the migration events, the authors included putative source populations endemic to China and Japan, inferred potentially unsampled populations and conducted a multivariate population genetic and complex ABC analysis. Cryphonectria parasitica emerges as an example of an introduced pathogen with limited genotypic diversity and some admixture in the invaded ranges, yet repeated invasions into different areas of Europe and the United States. This work sheds new light on the emergence of C. parasitica providing compelling evidence that this pathogen emerged by repeated migration and occasional admixture.

Linkage disequilibrium and spatial aggregation of genotypes in sexually reproducing populations of Erysiphe necator

Random mating and recombination in heterothallic ascomycetes should result in high genotypic diversity, 1:1 mating-type ratios, and random associations of alleles, or linkage equilibrium, at different loci. To test for random mating in populations of the grape powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe necator, we sampled isolates from vineyards of Vitis vinifera in Burdett, NY (NY09) and Winchester, VA (VA09) at the end of the epidemic in fall 2009. We also sampled isolates from the same Winchester, VA vineyard in spring 2010 at the onset of the next epidemic. Isolates were genotyped for mating type and 11 microsatellite markers. In the spring sample, which originated from ascospore infections, nearly every isolate had a unique genotype. In contrast, fall populations were less diverse. In all, 9 of 45 total genotypes in VA09 were represented by two or more isolates; 3 of 40 total genotypes in NY09 were represented by two or more isolates, with 1 genotype represented by 20 isolates. After clone correction, mating-type ratios in the three populations did not deviate from 1:1. However, even with clone correction, we detected significant linkage disequilibrium (LD) in all populations. Mantel tests detected positive correlations between genetic and physical distances within vineyards. Spatial autocorrelation showed aggregations up to 42 and 3 m in VA09 and NY09, respectively. Spatial autocorrelation most likely results from short dispersal distances. Overall, these results suggest that spatial genetic aggregation and clonal genotypes that arise during the asexual phase of the epidemic contribute to persistent LD even though populations undergo sexual reproduction annually.

Sex, outcrossing and mating types: unsolved questions in fungi and beyond

Variability in the way organisms reproduce raises numerous, and still unsolved, questions in evolutionary biology. In this study, we emphasize that fungi deserve a much greater emphasis in efforts to address these questions because of their multiple advantages as model eukaryotes. A tremendous diversity of reproductive modes and mating systems can be found in fungi, with many evolutionary transitions among closely related species. In addition, fungi show some peculiarities in their mating systems that have received little attention so far, despite the potential for providing insights into important evolutionary questions. In particular, selfing can occur at the haploid stage in addition to the diploid stage in many fungi, which is generally not possible in animals and plants but has a dramatic influence upon the structure of genetic systems. Fungi also present several advantages that make them tractable models for studies in experimental evolution. Here, we briefly review the unsolved questions and extant hypotheses about the evolution and maintenance of asexual vs. sexual reproduction and of selfing vs. outcrossing, focusing on fungal life cycles. We then propose how fungi can be used to address these long-standing questions and advance our understanding of sexual reproduction and mating systems across all eukaryotes.

[Population genetics of plant pathogens]

Comparing to natural ecosystems, the evolution of plant pathogens in agricultural ecosystems is generally faster due to high-density monocultures, large-scale application of agrochemicals, and international trade in agricultural products. Knowledge of the population genetics and evolutionary biology of plant pathogens is necessary to understand disease epidemiology, effectively breed and use resistant cultivars, and control plant diseases. In this article, we outlined the aims of population genetic studies in plant pathogens, discuss contributions of five evolutionary forces (i.e., mutation, gene flow, recombination, random genetic drift, and natural selection) to origin, maintenance, and distribution of genetic variation in time and space, and gave an overview of current research status in this field.

Invasion genetics of the chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica in Switzerland

Cryphonectria parasitica is the best-known example of an invasive forest pathogen in Europe. In southern Switzerland, chestnut blight was first reported in 1948 whereas, north of the Alps, it did not appear until the 1980s. Between 1995 and 2008, we sampled 640 C. parasitica isolates from nine populations south of the Alps and nine north of the Alps. Twelve historical isolates, collected between 1950 and 1972 in the south, were obtained from our collection. All 652 isolates were screened at 10 microsatellite loci to test for the existence of divergent genetic pools and to infer possible origins of haplotypes. In total, 52 haplotypes were identified. Structure software analysis indicated that 43 haplotypes (including all historical haplotypes) belonged to a main cluster, 6 haplotypes belonged to a different cluster, and 3 haplotypes had an intermediate allele pattern. All newly founded populations in northern Switzerland were initiated by one or just a few haplotypes from the main cluster, which probably came directly from the populations south of the Alps. Subsequently, genetic diversity increased through mutations, sexual reproduction, or new migrations. The highest increase in diversity was observed in populations where haplotypes from different genetic pools were encountered.

Parasitism and maintenance of diversity in a fungal vegetative incompatibility system: the role of selection by deleterious cytoplasmic elements

In fungi, horizontal transmission of deleterious cytoplasmic elements is reduced by the vegetative incompatibility system. This self/non-self recognition system may select for greater diversity of fungal incompatibility phenotypes in a frequency-dependent manner but the link between the diversity of fungal phenotypes and the virulence of cytoplasmic parasites has been poorly studied. We used an epidemiological model to show that even when transmission between incompatibility types is permitted, parasite pressure can lead to high levels of polymorphism for vegetative incompatibility systems. Moreover, high levels of polymorphism in host populations can select for less virulent cytoplasmic parasites. This feedback mechanism between parasite virulence and vegetative incompatibility system polymorphism of host populations may account for the general avirulence of most known mycoviruses. Furthermore, this mechanism provides a new perspective on the particular ecology and evolution of the host/parasite interactions acting between fungi and their cytoplasmic parasites.

Multiple introductions of divergent genetic lineages in an invasive fungal pathogen, Cryphonectria parasitica, in France

The occurrence of multiple introductions may be a crucial factor in the successful establishment of invasive species, but few studies focus on the introduction of fungal pathogens, despite their significant effect on invaded habitats. Although Cryphonectria parasitica, the chestnut blight fungus introduced in North America and Europe from Asia during the 20th century, caused dramatic changes in its new range, the history of its introduction is not well retraced in Europe. Using 10 microsatellite loci, we investigated the genetic diversity of 583 isolates in France, where several introductions have been hypothesized. Our analyses showed that the seven most frequent multilocus genotypes belonged to three genetic lineages, which had a different and geographically limited distribution. These results suggest that different introduction events occurred in France. Genetic recombination was low among these lineages, despite the presence of the two mating types in each chestnut stand analysed. The spatial distribution of lineages suggests that the history of introductions in France associated with the slow expansion of the disease has contributed to the low observed rate of recombination among the divergent lineages. However, we discuss the possibility that environmental conditions or viral interactions could locally reduce recombination among genotypes.

Geographic limits of a clonal population of wheat yellow rust in the Mediterranean region

Most plant pathogens present complex life cycles, in which the clonal reproduction may impede the delimitation of population entities. By studying the genetic structure of the wheat yellow rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici (PST), we highlighted difficulties impeding population delimitation in highly clonal species. Despite the high dispersal potential of PST, southern France isolates were shown to be divergent from a northwestern European population. A 2-year survey was performed in the Mediterranean region to assess the geographic distribution of southern isolates: 453 isolates collected in 11 countries were genotyped using 15 simple sequence repeat markers. A subsample was analysed for virulence against 23 resistance genes. The dominant strain in the western Mediterranean region was further studied with amplified fragment length polymorphism markers to test for a geographic substructure. Both 'individual'- and 'population'-centred analyses of polymorphism markers revealed two south-specific groups: a predominant group, with a broad variability and a wide distribution in both western and eastern Mediterranean countries, and a minor group in the western Mediterranean. The east-west gradient of genetic diversity suggested gene flow from the Middle East with subsequent founder effects and genetic divergence, and demonstrated the local survival of a western Mediterranean population. The high frequency of the resistance gene Yr8 observed in cultivars from Tunisia and Algeria may contribute to maintain the north/south structure observed in France. In addition to migration and local adaptation, the dynamics of clonal lineage diversification and replacement should be considered to define population entities in strongly clonal species.