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Branched chain amino acids catabolism as a source of new drug targets in pathogenic protists. Exp Parasitol 2023; 249:108499. [PMID: 36898495 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2023.108499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Leucine, isoleucine, and valine, collectively termed Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAA), are hydrophobic amino acids (AAs) and are essential for most eukaryotes since in these organisms they cannot be biosynthesized and must be supplied by the diet. These AAs are structurally relevant for muscle cells and, of course, important for the protein synthesis process. The metabolism of BCAA and its participation in different biological processes in mammals have been relatively well described. However, for other organisms as pathogenic parasites, the literature is really scarce. Here we review the BCAA catabolism, compile evidence on their relevance for pathogenic eukaryotes with special emphasis on kinetoplastids and highlight unique aspects of this underrated pathway.
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2
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Jenkins C, Micallef ML, Padula MP, Bogema DR. Characterisation of the Theileria orientalis Piroplasm Proteome across Three Common Genotypes. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11101135. [PMID: 36297192 PMCID: PMC9610513 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11101135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Theileria orientalis is an emerging apicomplexan pathogen of cattle occurring in areas populated by the principal vector tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Unlike transforming Theileria spp. that induce cancer-like proliferation of lymphocytes via their schizont stage, T. orientalis destroys host erythrocytes during its piroplasm phase resulting in anaemia. The underlying pathogenic processes of T. orientalis infection are poorly understood; consequently, there are no vaccines for prevention of T. orientalis infection and chemotherapeutic options are limited. To identify antigens expressed during the piroplasm phase of T. orientalis, including those which may be useful targets for future therapeutic development, we examined the proteome across three common genotypes of the parasite (Ikeda, Chitose and Buffeli) using preparations of piroplasms purified from bovine blood. A combination of Triton X-114 extraction, one-dimensional electrophoresis and LC-MS/MS identified a total of 1113 proteins across all genotypes, with less than 3% of these representing host-derived proteins. Just over three quarters of T. orientalis proteins (78%) identified were from the aqueous phase of the TX-114 extraction representing cytosolic proteins, with the remaining 22% from the detergent phase, representing membrane-associated proteins. All enzymes involved in glycolysis were expressed, suggesting that this is the major metabolic pathway used during the T. orientalis piroplasm phase. Proteins involved in binding and breakdown of haemoglobin were also identified, suggesting that T. orientalis uses haemoglobin as a source of amino acids. A number of proteins involved in host cell interaction were also identified which may be suitable targets for the development of chemotherapeutics or vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Jenkins
- NSW Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, NSW 2568, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-2-4640-6396
| | - Melinda L. Micallef
- NSW Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, NSW 2568, Australia
| | - Matthew P. Padula
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Daniel R. Bogema
- NSW Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, NSW 2568, Australia
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3
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Velásquez ZD, López-Osorio S, Mazurek S, Hermosilla C, Taubert A. Eimeria bovis Macromeront Formation Induces Glycolytic Responses and Mitochondrial Changes in Primary Host Endothelial Cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:703413. [PMID: 34336724 PMCID: PMC8319763 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.703413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria bovis is an intracellular apicomplexan parasite that causes considerable economic losses in the cattle industry worldwide. During the first merogony, E. bovis forms large macromeronts with >140,000 merozoites I in host endothelial cells. Because this is a high-energy demanding process, E. bovis exploits the host cellular metabolism to fulfill its metabolic requirements. We here analyzed the carbohydrate-related energetic metabolism of E. bovis–infected primary bovine umbilical vein endothelial cells during first merogony and showed that during the infection, E. bovis–infected culture presented considerable changes in metabolic signatures, glycolytic, and mitochondrial responses. Thus, an increase in both oxygen consumption rates (OCR) and extracellular acidification rates (ECAR) were found in E. bovis–infected host cells indicating a shift from quiescent to energetic cell status. Enhanced levels of glucose and pyruvate consumption in addition to increased lactate production, suggesting an important role of glycolysis in E. bovis–infected culture from 12 days p.i. onward. This was also tested by glycolytic inhibitors (2-DG) treatment, which reduced the macromeront development and diminished merozoite I production. As an interesting finding, we observed that 2-DG treatment boosted sporozoite egress. Referring to mitochondrial activities, intracellular ROS production was increased toward the end of merogony, and mitochondrial potential was enhanced from 12 d p. i. onward in E. bovis–infected culture. Besides, morphological alterations of membrane potential signals also indicated mitochondrial dysfunction in macromeront-carrying host endothelial culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahady D Velásquez
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sara López-Osorio
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany.,Research Group CIBAV, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agrarian Sciences, University of Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Sybille Mazurek
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Carlos Hermosilla
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Anja Taubert
- Institute of Parasitology, Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Liu Q, Yu L, Jiang F, Li M, Zhan X, Huang Y, Wang S, Du X, He L, Zhao J. Annotation and characterization of Babesia gibsoni apicoplast genome. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:209. [PMID: 32317011 PMCID: PMC7175588 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04065-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Babesia gibsoni is an apicomplexan parasite transmitted by ticks, which can infect canine species and cause babesiosis. The apicoplast is an organelle associated with isoprenoids metabolism, is widely present in apicomplexan parasites, except for Cryptosporidium. Available data indicate that the apicoplast is essential for the survival of apicomplexan parasites. Methods Here, the apicoplast genome of B. gibsoni was investigated by high-throughput genome sequencing, bioinformatics analysis, and conventional PCR. Results The apicoplast genome of B. gibsoni-Wuhan strain (B. gibsoni-WH) consists of a 28.4 kb circular molecule, with A + T content of 86.33%, similar to that of B. microti. Specifically, this genome encodes genes involved in maintenance of the apicoplast DNA, transcription, translation and maturation of organellar proteins, which contains 2 subunits of ribosomal RNAs, 17 ribosomal proteins, 1 EF-Tu elongation factor (tufA), 5 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase beta subunits, 2 Clp protease chaperones, 23 tRNA genes and 5 unknown open reading frames (hypothetical proteins). Phylogenetic analysis revealed high similarity of B. gibsoni apicoplast genome to that of B. orientalis and B. bovis. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first report of annotation and characterization of B. gibsoni-WH apicoplast genome. The results will facilitate the development of new anti-Babesia drug targets.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Long Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Fan Jiang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Muxiao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Xueyan Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Yuan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Sen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaoyong Du
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Agricultural Bioinformatics, College of Informatics, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
| | - Lan He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China. .,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China. .,Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture of the People's Republic of China, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.
| | - Junlong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China.,Key Laboratory of Development of Veterinary Diagnostic Products, Ministry of Agriculture of the People's Republic of China, Wuhan, 430070, Hubei, China
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5
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Cinar HN, Qvarnstrom Y, Wei-Pridgeon Y, Li W, Nascimento FS, Arrowood MJ, Murphy HR, Jang A, Kim E, Kim R, da Silva A, Gopinath GR. Comparative sequence analysis of Cyclospora cayetanensis apicoplast genomes originating from diverse geographical regions. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:611. [PMID: 27899155 PMCID: PMC5129617 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1896-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cyclospora cayetanensis is an emerging coccidian parasite that causes endemic and epidemic diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis, and this infection is associated with consumption of contaminated produce or water in developed and developing regions. Food-borne outbreaks of cyclosporiasis have occurred almost every year in the USA since the 1990s. Investigations of these outbreaks are currently hampered due to lack of molecular epidemiological tools for trace back analysis. The apicoplast of C. cayetanensis, a relict non-photosynthetic plastid with an independent genome, provides an attractive target to discover sequence polymorphisms useful as genetic markers for detection and trace back analysis of the parasite. Distinct differences in the apicoplast genomes of C. cayetanensis could be useful in designing advanced molecular methods for rapid detection and, subtyping and geographical source attribution, which would aid outbreak investigations and surveillance studies. METHODS To obtain the genome sequence of the C. cayetanensis apicoplast, we sequenced the C. cayetanensis genomic DNA extracted from clinical stool samples, assembled and annotated a 34,146 bp-long circular sequence, and used this sequence as a reference genome in this study. We compared the genome and the predicted proteome to the data available from other apicomplexan parasites. To initialize the search for genetic markers, we mapped the raw sequence reads from an additional 11 distinct clinical stool samples originating from Nepal, New York, Texas, and Indonesia to the apicoplast reference genome. RESULTS We identified several high quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and small insertion/deletions spanning the apicoplast genome supported by extensive sequencing reads data, and a 30 bp sequence repeat at the terminal spacer region in a Nepalese sample. The predicted proteome consists of 29 core apicomplexan peptides found in most of the apicomplexans. Cluster analysis of these C. cayetanensis apicoplast genomes revealed a familiar pattern of tight grouping with Eimeria and Toxoplasma, separated from distant species such as Plasmodium and Babesia. CONCLUSIONS SNPs and sequence repeats identified in this study may be useful as genetic markers for identification and differentiation of C. cayetanensis isolates found and could facilitate outbreak investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hediye Nese Cinar
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA.
| | - Yvonne Qvarnstrom
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yuping Wei-Pridgeon
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Wen Li
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Fernanda S Nascimento
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Michael J Arrowood
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Helen R Murphy
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - AhYoung Jang
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Eunje Kim
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - RaeYoung Kim
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Alexandre da Silva
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Gopal R Gopinath
- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD, USA
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6
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Jacot D, Waller RF, Soldati-Favre D, MacPherson DA, MacRae JI. Apicomplexan Energy Metabolism: Carbon Source Promiscuity and the Quiescence Hyperbole. Trends Parasitol 2015; 32:56-70. [PMID: 26472327 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The nature of energy metabolism in apicomplexan parasites has been closely investigated in the recent years. Studies in Plasmodium spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in particular have revealed that these parasites are able to employ enzymes in non-traditional ways, while utilizing multiple anaplerotic routes into a canonical tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle to satisfy their energy requirements. Importantly, some life stages of these parasites previously considered to be metabolically quiescent are, in fact, active and able to adapt their carbon source utilization to survive. We compare energy metabolism across the life cycle of malaria parasites and consider how this varies in other apicomplexans and related organisms, while discussing how this can be exploited for therapeutic intervention in these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Jacot
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ross F Waller
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - James I MacRae
- The Francis Crick Institute, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London NW7 1AA, UK.
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Oppenheim RD, Creek DJ, Macrae JI, Modrzynska KK, Pino P, Limenitakis J, Polonais V, Seeber F, Barrett MP, Billker O, McConville MJ, Soldati-Favre D. BCKDH: the missing link in apicomplexan mitochondrial metabolism is required for full virulence of Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium berghei. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004263. [PMID: 25032958 PMCID: PMC4102578 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
While the apicomplexan parasites Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii are thought to primarily depend on glycolysis for ATP synthesis, recent studies have shown that they can fully catabolize glucose in a canonical TCA cycle. However, these parasites lack a mitochondrial isoform of pyruvate dehydrogenase and the identity of the enzyme that catalyses the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA remains enigmatic. Here we demonstrate that the mitochondrial branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKDH) complex is the missing link, functionally replacing mitochondrial PDH in both T. gondii and P. berghei. Deletion of the E1a subunit of T. gondii and P. berghei BCKDH significantly impacted on intracellular growth and virulence of both parasites. Interestingly, disruption of the P. berghei E1a restricted parasite development to reticulocytes only and completely prevented maturation of oocysts during mosquito transmission. Overall this study highlights the importance of the molecular adaptation of BCKDH in this important class of pathogens. The mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is one of the core metabolic pathways of eukaryotic cells, which contributes to cellular energy generation and provision of essential intermediates for macromolecule synthesis. Apicomplexan parasites possess the complete sets of genes coding for the TCA cycle. However, they lack a key mitochondrial enzyme complex that is normally required for production of acetyl-CoA from pyruvate, allowing further oxidation of glycolytic intermediates in the TCA cycle. This study unequivocally resolves how acetyl-CoA is generated in the mitochondrion using a combination of genetic, biochemical and metabolomic approaches. Specifically, we show that T. gondii and P. bergei utilize a second mitochondrial dehydrogenase complex, BCKDH, that is normally involved in branched amino acid catabolism, to convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and further catabolize glucose in the TCA cycle. In T. gondii, loss of BCKDH leads to global defects in glucose metabolism, increased gluconeogenesis and a marked attenuation of growth in host cells and virulence in animals. In P. bergei, loss of BCKDH leads to a defect in parasite proliferation in mature red blood cells, although the mutant retains the capacity to proliferate within 'immature' reticulocytes, highlighting the role of host metabolism/physiology on the development of Plasmodium asexual stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca D. Oppenheim
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Darren J. Creek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology and Glasgow Polyomics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Drug Delivery Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - James I. Macrae
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- The National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Paco Pino
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Julien Limenitakis
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Valerie Polonais
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Frank Seeber
- FG16 - Mycotic and parasitic agents and mycobacteria, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology and Glasgow Polyomics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Billker
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Malcolm J. McConville
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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8
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Wang L, Delahunty C, Prieto JH, Rahlfs S, Jortzik E, Yates JR, Becker K. Protein S-nitrosylation in Plasmodium falciparum. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:2923-35. [PMID: 24256207 PMCID: PMC4039001 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2013.5553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Due to its life in different hosts and environments, the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is exposed to oxidative and nitrosative challenges. Nitric oxide (NO) and NO-derived reactive nitrogen species can constitute nitrosative stress and play a major role in NO-related signaling. However, the mode of action of NO and its targets in P. falciparum have hardly been characterized. Protein S-nitrosylation (SNO), a posttranslational modification of protein cysteine thiols, has emerged as a principal mechanism by which NO exerts diverse biological effects. Despite its potential importance, SNO has hardly been studied in human malaria parasites. Using a biotin-switch approach coupled to mass spectrometry, we systemically studied SNO in P. falciparum cell extracts. RESULTS We identified 319 potential targets of SNO that are widely distributed throughout various cellular pathways. Glycolysis in the parasite was found to be a major target, with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase being strongly inhibited by S-nitrosylation of its active site cysteine. Furthermore, we show that P. falciparum thioredoxin 1 (PfTrx1) can be S-nitrosylated at its nonactive site cysteine (Cys43). Mechanistic studies indicate that PfTrx1 possesses both denitrosylating and transnitrosylating activities mediated by its active site cysteines and Cys43, respectively. INNOVATION This work provides first insights into the S-nitrosoproteome of P. falciparum and suggests that the malaria parasite employs the thioredoxin system to deal with nitrosative challenges. CONCLUSION Our results indicate that SNO may influence a variety of metabolic processes in P. falciparum and contribute to our understanding of NO-related signaling processes and cytotoxicity in the parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihui Wang
- 1 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University , Giessen, Germany
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Cobbold SA, Vaughan AM, Lewis IA, Painter HJ, Camargo N, Perlman DH, Fishbaugher M, Healer J, Cowman AF, Kappe SHI, Llinás M. Kinetic flux profiling elucidates two independent acetyl-CoA biosynthetic pathways in Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:36338-50. [PMID: 24163372 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.503557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum depends on glucose to meet its energy requirements during blood-stage development. Although glycolysis is one of the best understood pathways in the parasite, it is unclear if glucose metabolism appreciably contributes to the acetyl-CoA pools required for tricarboxylic acid metabolism (TCA) cycle and fatty acid biosynthesis. P. falciparum possesses a pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex that is localized to the apicoplast, a specialized quadruple membrane organelle, suggesting that separate acetyl-CoA pools are likely. Herein, we analyze PDH-deficient parasites using rapid stable-isotope labeling and show that PDH does not appreciably contribute to acetyl-CoA synthesis, tricarboxylic acid metabolism, or fatty acid synthesis in blood stage parasites. Rather, we find that acetyl-CoA demands are supplied through a "PDH-like" enzyme and provide evidence that the branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase (BCKDH) complex is performing this function. We also show that acetyl-CoA synthetase can be a significant contributor to acetyl-CoA biosynthesis. Interestingly, the PDH-like pathway contributes glucose-derived acetyl-CoA to the TCA cycle in a stage-independent process, whereas anapleurotic carbon enters the TCA cycle via a stage-dependent phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase/phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase process that decreases as the parasite matures. Although PDH-deficient parasites have no blood-stage growth defect, they are unable to progress beyond the oocyst phase of the parasite mosquito stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon A Cobbold
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania 16802
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10
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Limenitakis J, Oppenheim RD, Creek DJ, Foth BJ, Barrett MP, Soldati-Favre D. The 2-methylcitrate cycle is implicated in the detoxification of propionate in Toxoplasma gondii. Mol Microbiol 2013; 87:894-908. [PMID: 23279335 PMCID: PMC3593168 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii belongs to the coccidian subgroup of the Apicomplexa phylum. The Coccidia are obligate intracellular pathogens that establish infection in their mammalian host via the enteric route. These parasites lack a mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex but have preserved the degradation of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) as a possible pathway to generate acetyl-CoA. Importantly, degradation of leucine, isoleucine and valine could lead to concomitant accumulation of propionyl-CoA, a toxic metabolite that inhibits cell growth. Like fungi and bacteria, the Coccidia possess the complete set of enzymes necessary to metabolize and detoxify propionate by oxidation to pyruvate via the 2-methylcitrate cycle (2-MCC). Phylogenetic analysis provides evidence that the 2-MCC was acquired via horizontal gene transfer. In T. gondii tachyzoites, this pathway is split between the cytosol and the mitochondrion. Although the rate-limiting enzyme 2-methylisocitrate lyase is dispensable for parasite survival, its substrates accumulate in parasites deficient in the enzyme and its absence confers increased sensitivity to propionic acid. BCAA is also dispensable in tachyzoites, leaving unresolved the source of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Limenitakis
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, CMU 1 Rue Michel Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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11
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Butterfield ER, Howe CJ, Nisbet RER. An analysis of dinoflagellate metabolism using EST data. Protist 2012; 164:218-36. [PMID: 23085481 DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellates are an important group of eukaryotic, single celled algae. They are the sister group of the Apicomplexa, a group of intracellular parasites and photosynthetic algae including the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Many apicomplexan mitochondria have a number of unusual features, including the lack of a pyruvate dehydrogenase and the existence of a branched TCA cycle. Here, we analyse dinoflagellate EST (expressed sequence tag) data to determine whether these features are apicomplexan-specific, or if they are more widespread. We show that dinoflagellates have replaced a key subunit (E1) of pyruvate dehydrogenase with a subunit of bacterial origin and that transcripts encoding many of the proteins that are essential in a conventional ATP synthase/Complex V are absent, as is the case in Apicomplexa. There is a pathway for synthesis of starch or glycogen as a storage carbohydrate. Transcripts encoding isocitrate lyase and malate synthase are present, consistent with ultrastructural reports of a glyoxysome. Finally, evidence for a conventional haem biosynthesis pathway is found, in contrast to the Apicomplexa, Chromera and early branching dinoflagellates (Perkinsus, Oxyrrhis).
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin R Butterfield
- Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
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Danne JC, Gornik SG, Macrae JI, McConville MJ, Waller RF. Alveolate mitochondrial metabolic evolution: dinoflagellates force reassessment of the role of parasitism as a driver of change in apicomplexans. Mol Biol Evol 2012; 30:123-39. [PMID: 22923466 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/mss205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial metabolism is central to the supply of ATP and numerous essential metabolites in most eukaryotic cells. Across eukaryotic diversity, however, there is evidence of much adaptation of the function of this organelle according to specific metabolic requirements and/or demands imposed by different environmental niches. This includes substantial loss or retailoring of mitochondrial function in many parasitic groups that occupy potentially nutrient-rich environments in their metazoan hosts. Infrakingdom Alveolata comprises a well-supported alliance of three disparate eukaryotic phyla-dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates. These major taxa represent diverse lifestyles of free-living phototrophs, parasites, and predators and offer fertile territory for exploring character evolution in mitochondria. The mitochondria of apicomplexan parasites provide much evidence of loss or change of function from analysis of mitochondrial protein genes. Much less, however, is known of mitochondrial function in their closest relatives, the dinoflagellate algae. In this study, we have developed new models of mitochondrial metabolism in dinoflagellates based on gene predictions and stable isotope labeling experiments. These data show that many changes in mitochondrial gene content previously only known from apicomplexans are found in dinoflagellates also. For example, loss of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and changes in tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzyme complement are shared by both groups and, therefore, represent ancestral character states. Significantly, we show that these changes do not result in loss of typical TCA cycle activity fueled by pyruvate. Thus, dinoflagellate data show that many changes in alveolate mitochondrial metabolism are independent of the major lifestyle changes seen in these lineages and provide a revised view of mitochondria character evolution during evolution of parasitism in apicomplexans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian C Danne
- School of Botany, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Torrentino-Madamet M, Almeras L, Travaillé C, Sinou V, Pophillat M, Belghazi M, Fourquet P, Jammes Y, Parzy D. Proteomic analysis revealed alterations of the Plasmodium falciparum metabolism following salicylhydroxamic acid exposure. Res Rep Trop Med 2011; 2:109-119. [PMID: 30881184 DOI: 10.2147/rrtm.s23127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Although human respiratory metabolism is characterized by the mitochondrial electron transport chain, some organisms present a "branched respiratory chain." This branched pathway includes both a classical and an alternative respiratory chain. The latter involves an alternative oxidase. Though the Plasmodium falciparum alternative oxidase is not yet identified, a specific inhibitor of this enzyme, salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM), showed a drug effect on P. falciparum respiratory function using oxygen consumption measurements. The present study aimed to highlight the metabolic pathways that are affected in P. falciparum following SHAM exposure. DESIGN A proteomic approach was used to analyze the P. falciparum proteome and determine the metabolic pathways altered following SHAM treatment. To evaluate the SHAM effect on parasite growth, the phenotypic alterations of P. falciparum after SHAM or/and hyperoxia exposure were observed. RESULTS After SHAM exposure, 26 proteins were significantly deregulated using a fluorescent two dimensional-differential gel electrophoresis. Among these deregulated proteins, some were particularly involved in energetic metabolism. And the combinatory effect of SHAM/hyperoxia seems deleterious for the growth of P. falciparum. CONCLUSION Our results indicated that SHAM appears to activate glycolysis and decrease stress defense systems. These data provide a better understanding of parasite biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lionel Almeras
- Unité de Recherche en Biologie et Epidémiologie Parasitaires, Antenne IRBA de Marseille (IMTSSA, Le Pharo)
| | - Christelle Travaillé
- UMR-MD3, Université de la Méditerranée, Antenne IRBA de Marseille (IMTSSA, Le Pharo),
| | - Véronique Sinou
- UMR-MD3, Université de la Méditerranée, Antenne IRBA de Marseille (IMTSSA, Le Pharo),
| | - Matthieu Pophillat
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille Luminy, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de la Méditerranée
| | - Maya Belghazi
- Centre d'Analyse Protéomique de Marseille, Institut Fédératif de Recherche Jean Roche, Faculté de Médecine Nord
| | - Patrick Fourquet
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille Luminy, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de la Méditerranée
| | - Yves Jammes
- UMR-MD2, Physiologie et Physiopathologie en Conditions d'Oxygénations Extrêmes, Institut Fédératif de Recherche Jean Roche, Faculté de Médecine Nord, Marseille, France
| | - Daniel Parzy
- UMR-MD3, Université de la Méditerranée, Antenne IRBA de Marseille (IMTSSA, Le Pharo),
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Pei Y, Tarun AS, Vaughan AM, Herman RW, Soliman JMB, Erickson-Wayman A, Kappe SHI. Plasmodium pyruvate dehydrogenase activity is only essential for the parasite's progression from liver infection to blood infection. Mol Microbiol 2010; 75:957-71. [PMID: 20487290 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.07034.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites possess a single pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) enzyme complex that is localized to the plastid-like organelle known as the apicoplast. Unlike most eukaryotes, Plasmodium parasites lack a mitochondrial PDH. The PDH complex catalyses the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, an important precursor for the tricarboxylic acid cycle and type II fatty acid synthesis (FAS II). In this study, using a rodent malaria model, we show that the PDH E1 alpha and E3 subunits colocalize with the FAS II enzyme FabI in the apicoplast of liver stages but are not significantly expressed in blood stages. Deletion of the E1 alpha or E3 subunit genes of Plasmodium yoelii PDH caused no defect in blood stage development, mosquito stage development or early liver stage development. However, the gene deletions completely blocked the ability of the e1 alpha(-) and e3(-) parasites to form exo-erythrocytic merozoites during late liver stage development, thus preventing the initiation of a blood stage infection. This phenotype is similar to that observed for deletions of genes involved in FAS II elongation. The data strongly support the hypothesis that the sole role of PDH is to provide acetyl-CoA for FAS II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Pei
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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15
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Déchamps S, Shastri S, Wengelnik K, Vial HJ. Glycerophospholipid acquisition in Plasmodium - a puzzling assembly of biosynthetic pathways. Int J Parasitol 2010; 40:1347-65. [PMID: 20600072 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Revised: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the Plasmodium life cycle, malaria parasites repeatedly undergo rapid cellular growth and prolific divisions, necessitating intense membrane neogenesis and, in particular, the acquisition of high amounts of phospholipids. At the intraerythrocytic stage, glycerophospholipids are the main parasite membrane constituents, which mostly originate from the Plasmodium-encoded enzymatic machinery. Several proteins and entire pathways have been characterized and their features reported, thereby generating a global view of glycerophospholipid synthesis across Plasmodium spp. The malaria parasite displays a panoply of pathways that are seldom found together in a single organism. The major glycerophospholipids are synthesized via ancestral prokaryotic CDP-diacylglycerol-dependent pathways and eukaryotic-type de novo pathways. The parasite exhibits additional reactions that bridge some of these routes and are otherwise restricted to some organisms, such as plants, while base-exchange mechanisms are largely unexplored in Plasmodium. Marked differences between Plasmodium spp. have also been reported in phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine synthesis. Little is currently known about glycerophospholipid acquisition at non-erythrocytic stages, but recent data reveal that intrahepatocytic parasites, oocysts and sporozoites import various host lipids, and that de novo fatty acid synthesis is only crucial at the late liver stage. More studies on the different Plasmodium developmental stages are needed, to further assemble the different pieces of this glycerophospholipid synthesis puzzle, which contains highly promising therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Déchamps
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, UMR 5235, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) - Universite Montpellier 2, cc 107, Place Eugene Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
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16
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Lau AOT. An overview of the Babesia, Plasmodium and Theileria genomes: a comparative perspective. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2008; 164:1-8. [PMID: 19110007 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2008.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2008] [Revised: 11/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Babesia, Plasmodium and Theileria form a triad of apicomplexan hemoparasites and are accountable for significant mortality and morbidity to humans and animals globally. Understanding the pathobiology of these three genera is crucial as multiple drug resistant strains continue to arise in endemic areas along with pesticide and acaricide resistant vector hosts. Vastly improved sequencing technology has produced whole genome sequences of several apicomplexan species and subsequent comparative analyses of these genomes have identified unique as well as common features among the different species, information that will help in the pursuit of alternative therapies, management and perhaps elimination of the disease. This review, therefore, summarizes comparisons of genome structure, protein families, metabolic pathways and organelle biology in these three apicomplexans and how such knowledge has and will continue to enhance the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey O T Lau
- Program in Genomics, Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA.
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17
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Host cell egress and invasion induce marked relocations of glycolytic enzymes in Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4:e1000188. [PMID: 18949028 PMCID: PMC2563030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites are dependent on an F-actin and myosin-based motility system for their invasion into and escape from animal host cells, as well as for their general motility. In Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium species, the actin filaments and myosin motor required for this process are located in a narrow space between the parasite plasma membrane and the underlying inner membrane complex, a set of flattened cisternae that covers most the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane. Here we show that the energy required for Toxoplasma motility is derived mostly, if not entirely, from glycolysis and lactic acid production. We also demonstrate that the glycolytic enzymes of Toxoplasma tachyzoites undergo a striking relocation from the parasites' cytoplasm to their pellicles upon Toxoplasma egress from host cells. Specifically, it appears that the glycolytic enzymes are translocated to the cytoplasmic face of the inner membrane complex as well as to the space between the plasma membrane and inner membrane complex. The glycolytic enzymes remain pellicle-associated during extended incubations of parasites in the extracellular milieu and do not revert to a cytoplasmic location until well after parasites have completed invasion of new host cells. Translocation of glycolytic enzymes to and from the Toxoplasma pellicle appears to occur in response to changes in extracellular [K(+)] experienced during egress and invasion, a signal that requires changes of [Ca(2+)](c) in the parasite during egress. Enzyme translocation is, however, not dependent on either F-actin or intact microtubules. Our observations indicate that Toxoplasma gondii is capable of relocating its main source of energy between its cytoplasm and pellicle in response to exit from or entry into host cells. We propose that this ability allows Toxoplasma to optimize ATP delivery to those cellular processes that are most critical for survival outside host cells and those required for growth and replication of intracellular parasites.
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Pino P, Foth BJ, Kwok LY, Sheiner L, Schepers R, Soldati T, Soldati-Favre D. Dual targeting of antioxidant and metabolic enzymes to the mitochondrion and the apicoplast of Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS Pathog 2007; 3:e115. [PMID: 17784785 PMCID: PMC1959373 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2007] [Accepted: 06/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an aerobic protozoan parasite that possesses mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes to safely dispose of oxygen radicals generated by cellular respiration and metabolism. As with most Apicomplexans, it also harbors a chloroplast-like organelle, the apicoplast, which hosts various biosynthetic pathways and requires antioxidant protection. Most apicoplast-resident proteins are encoded in the nuclear genome and are targeted to the organelle via a bipartite N-terminal targeting sequence. We show here that two antioxidant enzymes—a superoxide dismutase (TgSOD2) and a thioredoxin-dependent peroxidase (TgTPX1/2)—and an aconitase are dually targeted to both the apicoplast and the mitochondrion of T. gondii. In the case of TgSOD2, our results indicate that a single gene product is bimodally targeted due to an inconspicuous variation within the putative signal peptide of the organellar protein, which significantly alters its subcellular localization. Dual organellar targeting of proteins might occur frequently in Apicomplexans to serve important biological functions such as antioxidant protection and carbon metabolism. Toxoplasma gondii is a human and animal pathogen representative of the large group of Apicomplexa. Most members of this phylum contain, in addition to a tubular mitochondrion, a second endosymbiotic organelle indispensable for parasite survival, called the apicoplast. This non-photosynthetic plastid is the site of several anabolic pathways, including the biosynthesis of fatty acids, isoprenoids, iron-sulphur cluster, and heme. Virtually all enzymes active inside the apicoplast are encoded by the nuclear genome and targeted to the organelle via the endoplasmic reticulum courtesy of a bipartite amino terminal recognition sequence. The metabolic activities of the apicoplast impose a high demand for antioxidant protection. We show here that T. gondii possesses a superoxide dismutase and a peroxidase that are shared between the two organelles by an unusual mechanism of bimodal targeting whereby the nature of the signal peptide influences the destination of the protein to both organelles. Dual targeting also extends to other classical metabolic enzymes such as aconitase, uncovering unexpected metabolic pathways occurring in these organelles. In consequence, the bioinformatic predictions for plastidic or mitochondrial targeting on the basis of the characteristics of N-terminal presequences are insufficient in the absence of an experimental confirmation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paco Pino
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Centre Medical Universitaire, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bernardo Javier Foth
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Centre Medical Universitaire, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lai-Yu Kwok
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Centre Medical Universitaire, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lilach Sheiner
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Centre Medical Universitaire, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Rebecca Schepers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Thierry Soldati
- Department of Biochemistry, Sciences II, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Centre Medical Universitaire, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Anantharaman V, Iyer LM, Balaji S, Aravind L. Adhesion molecules and other secreted host-interaction determinants in Apicomplexa: insights from comparative genomics. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 2007; 262:1-74. [PMID: 17631186 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(07)62001-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexa have developed distinctive adaptations for invading and surviving within animal cells. Here a synthetic overview of the diversity and evolutionary history of cell membrane-associated, -secreted, and -exported proteins related to apicomplexan parasitism is presented. A notable feature in this regard was the early acquisition of adhesion protein domains and glycosylation systems through lateral transfer from animals. These were utilized in multiple contexts, including invasion of host cells and parasite-specific developmental processes. Apicomplexans possess a specialized version of the ancestral alveolate extrusion machinery, the rhoptries and micronemes, which are deployed in invasion and delivery of proteins into host cells. Each apicomplexan lineage has evolved a unique spectrum of extruded proteins that modify host molecules in diverse ways. Hematozoans, in particular, appear to have evolved novel systems for export of proteins into the host organelles and cell membrane during intracellular development. These exported proteins are an important aspect of the pathogenesis of Plasmodium and Theileria, being involved in response to fever and in leukocyte proliferation respectively. The complement of apicomplexan surface proteins has primarily diversified via massive lineage-specific expansions of certain protein families, which are often coded by subtelomeric gene arrays. Many of these families have been found to be central to immune evasion. Domain shuffling and accretion have resulted in adhesins with new domain architectures. In terms of individual genes, constant selective pressures from the host immune response has resulted in extensive protein polymorphisms and gene losses. Apicomplexans have also evolved complex regulatory mechanisms controlling expression and maturation of surface proteins at the chromatin, transcriptional, posttranscriptional, and posttranslational levels. Evolutionary reconstruction suggests that the ancestral apicomplexan had thrombospondin and EGF domain adhesins, which were linked to the parasite cytoskeleton, and played a central role in invasion through formation of the moving junction. It also suggests that the ancestral parasite had O-linked glycosylation of surface proteins which was partially or entirely lost in hematozoan lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Anantharaman
- National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20894, USA
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