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Koenig AM, Liu B, Hu J. Visualizing the dynamics of plant energy organelles. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:2029-2040. [PMID: 37975429 PMCID: PMC10754284 DOI: 10.1042/bst20221093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Plant organelles predominantly rely on the actin cytoskeleton and the myosin motors for long-distance trafficking, while using microtubules and the kinesin motors mostly for short-range movement. The distribution and motility of organelles in the plant cell are fundamentally important to robust plant growth and defense. Chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes are essential organelles in plants that function independently and coordinately during energy metabolism and other key metabolic processes. In response to developmental and environmental stimuli, these energy organelles modulate their metabolism, morphology, abundance, distribution and motility in the cell to meet the need of the plant. Consistent with their metabolic links in processes like photorespiration and fatty acid mobilization is the frequently observed inter-organellar physical interaction, sometimes through organelle membranous protrusions. The development of various organelle-specific fluorescent protein tags has allowed the simultaneous visualization of organelle movement in living plant cells by confocal microscopy. These energy organelles display an array of morphology and movement patterns and redistribute within the cell in response to changes such as varying light conditions, temperature fluctuations, ROS-inducible treatments, and during pollen tube development and immune response, independently or in association with one another. Although there are more reports on the mechanism of chloroplast movement than that of peroxisomes and mitochondria, our knowledge of how and why these three energy organelles move and distribute in the plant cell is still scarce at the functional and mechanistic level. It is critical to identify factors that control organelle motility coupled with plant growth, development, and stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M. Koenig
- Michigan State University-Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A
| | - Bo Liu
- Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, U.S.A
| | - Jianping Hu
- Michigan State University-Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, U.S.A
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2
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Gong L, Liu XD, Zeng YY, Tian XQ, Li YL, Turner NC, Fang XW. Stomatal morphology and physiology explain varied sensitivity to abscisic acid across vascular plant lineages. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 186:782-797. [PMID: 33620497 PMCID: PMC8154066 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Abscisic acid (ABA) can induce rapid stomatal closure in seed plants, but the action of this hormone on the stomata of fern and lycophyte species remains equivocal. Here, ABA-induced stomatal closure, signaling components, guard cell K+ and Ca2+ fluxes, vacuolar and actin cytoskeleton dynamics, and the permeability coefficient of guard cell protoplasts (Pf) were analyzed in species spanning the diversity of vascular land plants including 11 seed plants, 6 ferns, and 1 lycophyte. We found that all 11 seed plants exhibited ABA-induced stomatal closure, but the fern and lycophyte species did not. ABA-induced hydrogen peroxide elevation was observed in all species, but the signaling pathway downstream of nitric oxide production, including ion channel activation, was only observed in seed plants. In the angiosperm faba bean (Vicia faba), ABA application caused large vacuolar compartments to disaggregate, actin filaments to disintegrate into short fragments and Pf to increase. None of these changes was observed in the guard cells of the fern Matteuccia struthiopteris and lycophyte Selaginella moellendorffii treated with ABA, but a hypertonic osmotic solution did induce stomatal closure in fern and the lycophyte. Our results suggest that there is a major difference in the regulation of stomata between the fern and lycophyte plants and the seed plants. Importantly, these findings have uncovered the physiological and biophysical mechanisms that may have been responsible for the evolution of a stomatal response to ABA in the earliest seed plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Xu-Dong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Yuan-Yuan Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Xue-Qian Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Yan-Lu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Neil C Turner
- The UWA Institute of Agriculture and UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, M082, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Xiang-Wen Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
- Author for communication: (X.W.F.)
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Li X, Diao M, Zhang Y, Chen G, Huang S, Chen N. Guard Cell Microfilament Analyzer Facilitates the Analysis of the Organization and Dynamics of Actin Filaments in Arabidopsis Guard Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112753. [PMID: 31195605 PMCID: PMC6600335 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The actin cytoskeleton is involved in regulating stomatal movement, which forms distinct actin arrays within guard cells of stomata with different apertures. How those actin arrays are formed and maintained remains largely unexplored. Elucidation of the dynamic behavior of differently oriented actin filaments in guard cells will enhance our understanding in this regard. Here, we initially developed a program called ‘guard cell microfilament analyzer’ (GCMA) that enables the selection of individual actin filaments and analysis of their orientations semiautomatically in guard cells. We next traced the dynamics of individual actin filaments and performed careful quantification in open and closed stomata. We found that de novo nucleation of actin filaments occurs at both dorsal and ventral sides of guard cells from open and closed stomata. Interestingly, most of the nucleated actin filaments elongate radially and longitudinally in open and closed stomata, respectively. Strikingly, radial filaments tend to form bundles whereas longitudinal filaments tend to be removed by severing and depolymerization in open stomata. By contrast, longitudinal filaments tend to form bundles that are severed less frequently in closed stomata. These observations provide insights into the formation and maintenance of distinct actin arrays in guard cells in stomata of different apertures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Min Diao
- Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
- iHuman Institute, Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai 201210, China.
| | - Yanan Zhang
- OLYMPUS (CHINA) CO., LTD, Beijing 100027, China.
| | - Guanlin Chen
- Baidu Online Network Technology (Beijing) CO., LTD, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Shanjin Huang
- Center for Plant Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Naizhi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
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Waidyarathne P, Samarasinghe S. Boolean Calcium Signalling Model Predicts Calcium Role in Acceleration and Stability of Abscisic Acid-Mediated Stomatal Closure. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17635. [PMID: 30518777 PMCID: PMC6281740 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35872-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Inconsistent hypotheses have proposed Ca2+ as either being essential or irrelevant and redundant in ABA induced stomatal closure. This study integrates all available information from literature to define ABA signalling pathway and presents it in a systems view for clearer understanding of the role of Ca2+ in stomatal closure. Importantly, it incorporates into an Asynchronous Boolean model time delays sourced from an extensive literature search. The model predicted the timing of ABA events and mutant behaviour close to biology. It revealed biologically reported timing for Ca2+ activation and Ca2+ dynamics consistent with biology. It also predicts that Ca2+ elevation is not essential in stomatal closure but it can accelerate closure, consistent with previous findings, but our model further explains that acting as a mediator, Ca2+ accelerates stomatal closure by enhancing plasma membrane slowly activating anion channel SLAC1 and actin rearrangement. It shows statistical significance of Ca2+ induced acceleration of closure and that of Ca2+ induced acceleration of SLAC1 activation. Further, the model demonstrates that Ca2+ enhances resilience of closure to perturbation of important elements; especially, ROS pathway, as did previous ABA model, and even to the ABA signal disruption. It goes further to elucidate the mechanisms by which Ca2+ engenders stomatal closure in these perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramuditha Waidyarathne
- Complex Systems, Big Data and Informatics Initiative (CSBII), Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand.,Coconout Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
| | - Sandhya Samarasinghe
- Complex Systems, Big Data and Informatics Initiative (CSBII), Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Yu Q, Ren JJ, Kong LJ, Wang XL. Actin filaments regulate the adhesion between the plasma membrane and the cell wall of tobacco guard cells. PROTOPLASMA 2018; 255:235-245. [PMID: 28803402 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-017-1149-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
During the opening and closing of stomata, guard cells undergo rapid and reversible changes in their volume and shape, which affects the adhesion of the plasma membrane (PM) to the cell wall (CW). The dynamics of actin filaments in guard cells are involved in stomatal movement by regulating structural changes and intracellular signaling. However, it is unclear whether actin dynamics regulate the adhesion of the PM to the CW. In this study, we investigated the relationship between actin dynamics and PM-CW adhesion by the hyperosmotic-induced plasmolysis of tobacco guard cells. We found that actin filaments in guard cells were depolymerized during mannitol-induced plasmolysis. The inhibition of actin dynamics by treatment with latrunculin B or jasplakinolide and the disruption of the adhesion between the PM and the CW by treatment with RGDS peptide (Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser) enhanced guard cell plasmolysis. However, treatment with latrunculin B alleviated the RGDS peptide-induced plasmolysis and endocytosis. Our results reveal that the actin depolymerization is involved in the regulation of the PW-CW adhesion during hyperosmotic-induced plasmolysis in tobacco guard cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018, China
| | - Jing-Jing Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018, China
| | - Lan-Jing Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018, China
| | - Xiu-Ling Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018, China.
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Abstract
Advances in microscopy techniques applied to living cells have dramatically transformed our view of the actin cytoskeleton as a framework for cellular processes. Conventional fluorescence imaging and static analyses are useful for quantifying cellular architecture and the network of filaments that support vesicle trafficking, organelle movement, and response to biotic stress. However, new imaging techniques have revealed remarkably dynamic features of individual actin filaments and the mechanisms that underpin their construction and turnover. In this review, we briefly summarize knowledge about actin and actin-binding proteins in plant systems. We focus on the quantitative properties of the turnover of individual actin filaments, highlight actin-binding proteins that participate in actin dynamics, and summarize the current genetic evidence that has been used to dissect specific aspects of the stochastic dynamics model. Finally, we describe some signaling pathways in which recent data implicate changes in actin filament dynamics and the associated cytoplasmic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiejie Li
- Department of Biological Sciences and
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Henty-Ridilla JL, Li J, Blanchoin L, Staiger CJ. Actin dynamics in the cortical array of plant cells. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 16:678-87. [PMID: 24246228 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The actin cytoskeleton changes in organization and dynamics as cellular functions are reprogrammed following responses to diverse stimuli, hormones, and developmental cues. How this is choreographed and what molecular players are involved in actin remodeling continues to be an area of intense scrutiny. Advances in imaging modalities and fluorescent fusion protein reporters have illuminated the strikingly dynamic behavior of single actin filaments at high spatial and temporal resolutions. This led to a model for the stochastic dynamic turnover of actin filaments and predicted the actions and responsibilities of several key actin-binding proteins. Recently, aspects of this model have been tested using powerful genetic strategies in both Arabidopsis and Physcomitrella. Collectively, the latest data emphasize the importance of filament severing activities and regulation of barbed-end availability as key facets of plant actin filament turnover.
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Mickle JE, Lumaga MRB, De Luca P. Stomatal Development in Aerial Axes of Psilotum nudum (Psilotaceae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.7572/2167-5880-128.3.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Apical regions of developing aerial shoots of Psilotum nudum (L.) Beauv. were studied using both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light microscopy (LM) with the aim of improving our understanding of early stages in stomatal and epidermal ontogenesis. SEM samples were fixed in gluteraldehyde, critical point dried, and coated with an Au-Pd alloy. LM samples were fixed in FAA and embedded in paraffin. LM sections were stained with 0.05% toluidine blue for protein. SEM shows that P. nudum stomata develop from 20 µm-long domed meristemoid cells into guard cell mother cells (GMCs). A furrow dividing guard cells develops at 30 µm long, and wax deposition that will cover the entire cell begins at 70 µm long. LM longitudinal sections of GMCs show a cytoplasmic protein net that organizes into radial fibers, similar to reports of actin fibers in stomata of angiosperms. This study provides additional details of stomatal development in Psilotum and is the first report of an actin-like protein net in Psilotum.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E. Mickle
- Department of Plant Biology, Box 7612, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Maria Rosaria Barone Lumaga
- Orto Botanico, Facoltà di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II,”, via Foria, 223, 80139 Napoli, Italy
| | - Paolo De Luca
- Orto Botanico, Facoltà di Scienze, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II,”, via Foria, 223, 80139 Napoli, Italy
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Thomas C. Bundling actin filaments from membranes: some novel players. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:188. [PMID: 22936939 PMCID: PMC3426786 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 08/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Progress in live-cell imaging of the cytoskeleton has significantly extended our knowledge about the organization and dynamics of actin filaments near the plasma membrane of plant cells. Noticeably, two populations of filamentous structures can be distinguished. On the one hand, fine actin filaments which exhibit an extremely dynamic behavior basically characterized by fast polymerization and prolific severing events, a process referred to as actin stochastic dynamics. On the other hand, thick actin bundles which are composed of several filaments and which are comparatively more stable although they constantly remodel as well. There is evidence that the actin cytoskeleton plays critical roles in trafficking and signaling at both the cell cortex and organelle periphery but the exact contribution of actin bundles remains unclear. A common view is that actin bundles provide the long-distance tracks used by myosin motors to deliver their cargo to growing regions and accordingly play a particularly important role in cell polarization. However, several studies support that actin bundles are more than simple passive highways and display multiple and dynamic roles in the regulation of many processes, such as cell elongation, polar auxin transport, stomatal and chloroplast movement, and defense against pathogens. The list of identified plant actin-bundling proteins is ever expanding, supporting that plant cells shape structurally and functionally different actin bundles. Here I review the most recently characterized actin-bundling proteins, with a particular focus on those potentially relevant to membrane trafficking and/or signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Thomas
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, Department of Oncology, Public Research Centre for Health (CRP-Santé)Luxembourg, Luxembourg
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Liu SG, Zhu DZ, Chen GH, Gao XQ, Zhang XS. Disrupted actin dynamics trigger an increment in the reactive oxygen species levels in the Arabidopsis root under salt stress. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2012; 31:1219-26. [PMID: 22383108 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-012-1242-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Changes in actin dynamics represent the primary response of the plant cell to extracellular signaling. Recent studies have now revealed that actin remodeling is involved in abiotic stress tolerance in plants. In our current study, the relationship between the changes in actin dynamics and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level at the initial stages of salt stress was investigated in the elongation zone of the Arabidopsis root tip. We found that a 200 mM NaCl treatment disrupted the dynamics of the actin filaments within 10 min and increased the ROS levels in the elongation zone cells of the Arabidopsis root tip. We further found that the NADPH oxidase activity inhibitor, diphenyleneiodonium, treatment blocked this ROS increase under salt stress conditions. The roles of actin dynamics and the NADPH oxidases in ROS generation were further analyzed using the actin-specific agents, latrunculin B (Lat-B) and jasplakinolide (Jasp), and mutants of Arabidopsis NADPH oxidase AtrbohC. Lat-B and Jasp promote actin depolymerization and polymerization, respectively, and both were found to enhance the ROS levels following NaCl treatment. However, this response was abolished in the atrbohC mutants. Our present results thus demonstrate that actin dynamics are involved in regulating the ROS level in Arabidopsis root under salt stress conditions. KEY MESSAGE Salt stress disrupts the dynamics of the actin filaments in Arabidopsis in the short term which are involved in regulating the ROS levels that arise under salt stress conditions via the actions of the AtrbohC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shang Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, Shandong, China
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Chu CP, Liu ZH, Hu ZY, Wang XL. Tubular actin filaments in tobacco guard cells. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:1578-80. [PMID: 21921692 PMCID: PMC3256388 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.10.17095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/03/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The dynamic remodeling of actin filaments in guard cells functions in stomatal movement regulation. In our previous study, we found that the stochastic dynamics of guard cell actin filaments play a role in chloroplast movement during stomatal movement. In our present study, we further find that tubular actin filaments are present in tobacco guard cells that express GFP-mouse talin; approximately 2.3 tubular structures per cell with a diameter and height in the range of 1-3 µm and 3-5 µm, respectively. Most of the tubular structures were found to be localized in the cytoplasm near the inner walls of the guard cells. Moreover, the tubular actin filaments altered their localization slowly in the guard cells of static stoma, but showed obvious remodeling, such as breakdown and re-formation, in moving guard cells. Tubular actin filaments were further found to be colocalized with the chloroplasts in guard cells, but their roles in stomatal movement regulation requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Ping Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, China
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Henty JL, Bledsoe SW, Khurana P, Meagher RB, Day B, Blanchoin L, Staiger CJ. Arabidopsis actin depolymerizing factor4 modulates the stochastic dynamic behavior of actin filaments in the cortical array of epidermal cells. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:3711-26. [PMID: 22010035 PMCID: PMC3229145 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.111.090670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Revised: 09/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Actin filament arrays are constantly remodeled as the needs of cells change as well as during responses to biotic and abiotic stimuli. Previous studies demonstrate that many single actin filaments in the cortical array of living Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal cells undergo stochastic dynamics, a combination of rapid growth balanced by disassembly from prolific severing activity. Filament turnover and dynamics are well understood from in vitro biochemical analyses and simple reconstituted systems. However, the identification in living cells of the molecular players involved in controlling actin dynamics awaits the use of model systems, especially ones where the power of genetics can be combined with imaging of individual actin filaments at high spatial and temporal resolution. Here, we test the hypothesis that actin depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin contributes to stochastic filament severing and facilitates actin turnover. A knockout mutant for Arabidopsis ADF4 has longer hypocotyls and epidermal cells when compared with wild-type seedlings. This correlates with a change in actin filament architecture; cytoskeletal arrays in adf4 cells are significantly more bundled and less dense than in wild-type cells. Several parameters of single actin filament turnover are also altered. Notably, adf4 mutant cells have a 2.5-fold reduced severing frequency as well as significantly increased actin filament lengths and lifetimes. Thus, we provide evidence that ADF4 contributes to the stochastic dynamic turnover of actin filaments in plant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Henty
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2064
| | - Samuel W. Bledsoe
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2064
| | - Parul Khurana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2064
- School of Natural Science and Mathematics, Indiana University East, Richmond, Indiana 47374
| | - Richard B. Meagher
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-7223
| | - Brad Day
- Department of Plant Pathology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1311
| | - Laurent Blanchoin
- Institut de Recherches en Technologie et Sciences pour le Vivant, Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire and Végétale, Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique/Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique/Universite Joseph Fourier, F38054 Grenoble, France
| | - Christopher J. Staiger
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-2064
- The Bindley Bioscience Center, Discovery Park, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
- Address correspondence to
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