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Wang Y, Brûlé E, Silander T, Bak B, Joustra SD, Bernard DJ. The short mRNA isoform of the immunoglobulin superfamily, member 1 gene encodes an intracellular glycoprotein. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180731. [PMID: 28686733 PMCID: PMC5501590 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the immunoglobulin superfamily, member 1 gene (IGSF1/Igsf1) cause an X-linked form of central hypothyroidism. The canonical form of IGSF1 is a transmembrane glycoprotein with 12 immunoglobulin (Ig) loops. The protein is co-translationally cleaved into two sub-domains. The carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD), which contains the last 7 Ig loops, is trafficked to the plasma membrane. Most pathogenic mutations in IGSF1 map to the portion of the gene encoding the CTD. IGSF1/Igsf1 encodes a variety of transcripts. A little studied, but abundant splice variant encodes a truncated form of the protein, predicted to contain the first 2 Ig loops of the full-length IGSF1. The protein (hereafter referred to as IGSF1 isoform 2 or IGSF1-2) is likely retained in most individuals with IGSF1 mutations. Here, we characterized basic biochemical properties of the protein as a foray into understanding its potential function. IGSF1-2, like the IGSF1-CTD, is a glycoprotein. In both mouse and rat, the protein is N-glycosylated at a single asparagine residue in the first Ig loop. Contrary to earlier predictions, neither the murine nor rat IGSF1-2 is secreted from heterologous or homologous cells. In addition, neither protein associates with the plasma membrane. Rather, IGSF1-2 appears to be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. Whether the protein plays intracellular functions or is trafficked through the secretory pathway under certain physiologic or pathophysiologic conditions has yet to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Centre for Research in Reproduction and Development, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Emilie Brûlé
- Centre for Research in Reproduction and Development, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Tanya Silander
- Centre for Research in Reproduction and Development, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Beata Bak
- Centre for Research in Reproduction and Development, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Sjoerd D. Joustra
- Department of Pediatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel J. Bernard
- Centre for Research in Reproduction and Development, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Tang Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhuo M, Song L, Tang Z, Zang G, Chen X, Yu Y. Correlation between low tapasin expression and impaired CD8+ T‑cell function in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:3315-22. [PMID: 27510296 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is associated with reduced antigen‑presenting capacity and insufficient cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) production. The molecular chaperone tapasin mediates binding of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), and has an important role in endogenous antigen processing and presentation, and the induction of specific CTL responses. The present study aimed to determine whether tapasin is associated with chronic HBV (CHB) infection. The mRNA expression levels of tapasin were detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 27 patients with CHB, 20 patients with acute HBV (AHB) and 26 healthy controls by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In addition, CD8+ T immune responses were evaluated in all groups, and the correlation between tapasin expression and CD8+ responses was analyzed. The results demonstrated that the mRNA expression levels of tapasin were significantly downregulated in patients with CHB compared with in healthy controls and patients with AHB. Furthermore, the apoptotic rate of CD8+ T cells was increased in patients with CHB compared with in the other two groups. The percentage of interferon (IFN)‑γ+CD8+ T cells was reduced in patients with CHB compared with in patients with AHB and healthy controls, and serum cytokine levels (IFN‑γ, interleukin‑2 and tumor necrosis factor‑α) were generally low in patients with CHB. Furthermore, the mRNA expression levels of tapasin were positively correlated with IFN‑γ production by CD8+ T cells, and were inversely correlated with the apoptotic ratio of CD8+ T cells. These results indicate that decreased expression of tapasin may be closely associated with CHB, and suggest an important role for tapasin in the pathogenesis of CHB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyan Tang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Jieling Wang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Meng Zhuo
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Linlin Song
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Zhenghao Tang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Guoqing Zang
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Xiaohua Chen
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
| | - Yongsheng Yu
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai Jiaotong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, P.R. China
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Rausch MP, Sertil AR. A stressful microenvironment: opposing effects of the endoplasmic reticulum stress response in the suppression and enhancement of adaptive tumor immunity. Int Rev Immunol 2015; 34:104-22. [PMID: 25774773 DOI: 10.3109/08830185.2015.1018415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The recent clinical success of immunotherapy in the treatment of certain types of cancer has demonstrated the powerful ability of the immune system to control tumor growth, leading to significantly improved patient survival. However, despite these promising results current immunotherapeutic strategies are still limited and have not yet achieved broad acceptance outside the context of metastatic melanoma. The limitations of current immunotherapeutic approaches can be attributed in part to suppressive mechanisms present in the tumor microenvironment that hamper the generation of robust antitumor immune responses thus allowing tumor cells to escape immune-mediated destruction. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response has recently emerged as a potent regulator of tumor immunity. The ER stress response is an adaptive mechanism that allows tumor cells to survive in the harsh growth conditions inherent to the tumor milieu such as low oxygen (hypoxia), low pH and low levels of glucose. Activation of ER stress can also alter the cancer cell response to therapies. In addition, the ER stress response promotes tumor immune evasion by inducing the production of protumorigenic inflammatory cytokines and impairing tumor antigen presentation. However, the ER stress response can boost antitumor immunity in some situations by enhancing the processing and presentation of tumor antigens and by inducing the release of immunogenic factors from stressed tumor cells. Here, we discuss the dualistic role of the ER stress response in the modulation of tumor immunity and highlight how strategies to either induce or block ER stress can be employed to improve the clinical efficacy of tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew P Rausch
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine Phoenix, University of Arizona , Phoenix, AZ , USA
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Chen X, Liu H, Tang Z, Yu Y, Zang G. The modification of Tapasin enhances cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity of intracellularly delivered CTL epitopes via cytoplasmic transduction peptide. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2013; 45:203-12. [PMID: 23299079 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gms116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that the therapeutic vaccine based on the enhancement of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity may lead to viral clearance in HBV-infected individuals. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone Tapasin plays an important role in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I assembly and enhances specific MHC class I-restricted CTL activity by allowing more peptides to be translocated into the ER. Combining the specificity of hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) CTL epitope, the cell-penetrating property of cytoplasmic transduction peptide (CTP), and chaperone Tapasin may elicit robust specific HBV immune responses. In the present study, we confirmed the cytoplasmic localization preference of CTP-HBcAg(18-27)-Tapasin fusion protein in vitro and evaluated the effects on promoting bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) maturation and enhancing T cells response to generate specific CTLs. Our results showed that CTP-HBcAg(18-27)-Tapasin fusion protein could not only penetrate into the cytoplasm exactly and effectively to elevate Tapasin expression, but also increase the expression of surface molecules (CD80, CD83, CD86, and MHC-I) and secretion of cytokine (IL-12p70) of DCs. Moreover, DCs treated with the above fusion proteins increased significantly the cytokine secretion of proliferated T cells in vitro, the percentages of IFN-γ(+)CD8(+) T cells and specific CTL responses compared with control groups. In conclusion, the modification of Tapasin can enhance the presentation of targeting antigens via intracellular delivery to DCs and elicit specific CTL immune responses efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohua Chen
- Department of Infectious Disease, Shanghai No. 6 People's Hospital, College of Medicine, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Shanghai 200233, China
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Mage MG, Dolan MA, Wang R, Boyd LF, Revilleza MJ, Robinson H, Natarajan K, Myers NB, Hansen TH, Margulies DH. The peptide-receptive transition state of MHC class I molecules: insight from structure and molecular dynamics. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 189:1391-9. [PMID: 22753930 PMCID: PMC3422668 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
MHC class I (MHC-I) proteins of the adaptive immune system require antigenic peptides for maintenance of mature conformation and immune function via specific recognition by MHC-I-restricted CD8(+) T lymphocytes. New MHC-I molecules in the endoplasmic reticulum are held by chaperones in a peptide-receptive (PR) transition state pending release by tightly binding peptides. In this study, we show, by crystallographic, docking, and molecular dynamics methods, dramatic movement of a hinged unit containing a conserved 3(10) helix that flips from an exposed "open" position in the PR transition state to a "closed" position with buried hydrophobic side chains in the peptide-loaded mature molecule. Crystallography of hinged unit residues 46-53 of murine H-2L(d) MHC-I H chain, complexed with mAb 64-3-7, demonstrates solvent exposure of these residues in the PR conformation. Docking and molecular dynamics predict how this segment moves to help form the A and B pockets crucial for the tight peptide binding needed for stability of the mature peptide-loaded conformation, chaperone dissociation, and Ag presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G. Mage
- Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD,Corresponding authors: , ph: 301-402-5537, fax: 301-480-7352; or , ph: 301-496-6429, fax: 301-496-0222
| | - Michael A. Dolan
- Computational Biology Section, Bioinformatics and Computational Biosciences Branch (BCBB), NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - Rui Wang
- Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - Lisa F. Boyd
- Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | | | - Howard Robinson
- National Synchrotron Light Source, Brookhaven National Laboratories, Upton, New York
| | - Kannan Natarajan
- Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD
| | - Nancy B. Myers
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Ted H. Hansen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - David H. Margulies
- Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD,Corresponding authors: , ph: 301-402-5537, fax: 301-480-7352; or , ph: 301-496-6429, fax: 301-496-0222
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Wei H, Hongya P, Linlin J, Mujiang A, Kuijie W, Duohong Z, Qingang H, Zhiyuan Z. IFN-γ enhances the anti-tumour immune response of dendritic cells against oral squamous cell carcinoma. Arch Oral Biol 2011; 56:891-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2011.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Revised: 01/29/2011] [Accepted: 02/11/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ghanem E, Fritzsche S, Al-Balushi M, Hashem J, Ghuneim L, Thomer L, Kalbacher H, van Endert P, Wiertz E, Tampé R, Springer S. The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is active in a post-ER compartment. J Cell Sci 2010; 123:4271-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.060632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The translocation of cytosolic peptides into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a crucial step in the presentation of intracellular antigen to T cells by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. It is mediated by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) protein, which binds to peptide-receptive MHC class I molecules to form the MHC class I peptide-loading complex (PLC). We investigated whether TAP is present and active in compartments downstream of the ER. By fluorescence microscopy, we found that TAP is localized to the ERGIC (ER-Golgi intermediate compartment) and the Golgi of both fibroblasts and lymphocytes. Using an in vitro vesicle formation assay, we show that COPII vesicles, which carry secretory cargo out of the ER, contain functional TAP that is associated with MHC class I molecules. Together with our previous work on post-ER localization of peptide-receptive class I molecules, our results suggest that loading of peptides onto class I molecules in the context of the peptide-loading complex can occur outside the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Ghanem
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Susanne Fritzsche
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Mohammed Al-Balushi
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman
| | - Jood Hashem
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Lana Ghuneim
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Lena Thomer
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Hubert Kalbacher
- Medical and Natural Sciences Research Center, University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter van Endert
- INSERM, U580, 75015 Paris, France, and Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine René Descartes, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Emmanuel Wiertz
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, and Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, PO Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Robert Tampé
- Cluster of Excellence ‘Macromolecular Complexes’, Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe University Frankfurt, Marie-Curie-Str. 9, 60439 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sebastian Springer
- Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Molecular Life Science Center, Jacobs University Bremen, 28759 Bremen, Germany
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8
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Seliger B. Different regulation of MHC class I antigen processing components in human tumors. J Immunotoxicol 2009; 5:361-7. [PMID: 19404870 DOI: 10.1080/15476910802482870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, progress has been made in understanding how peptides presented by MHC Class I molecules were generated, in particular which proteases are involved in this process and how intracellular pathways influence antigen presentation in professional antigen-presenting cells and various types of tumor cells. This review will give an overview of MHC Class I abnormalities in malignancies and their underlying molecular mechanisms. Dependent on the tumor types structural alterations in particular of the MHC Class I heavy chain, beta(2)-m and the TAP1 subunit have been found at a low frequency, whereas dysregulation of MHC Class I antigen processing components appears to be the major mechanism of MHC Class I down-regulation in tumors of distinct origin. This could occur at the epigenetic, transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional level. The lack or suppression of MHC Class I surface expression due to antigen-processing deficiencies are accompanied by reduced recognition and lysis by antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, which is further often associated with disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Seliger
- Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Medical Immunology, Halle (Saale), Germany.
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9
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Elis S, Blesbois E, Couty I, Balzergue S, Martin-Magniette ML, Batellier F, Govoroun MS. Identification of germinal disk region derived genes potentially involved in hen fertility. Mol Reprod Dev 2009; 76:1043-55. [DOI: 10.1002/mrd.21062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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10
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Tang Q, Zhang J, Qi B, Shen C, Xie W. Downregulation of HLA class I molecules in primary oral squamous cell carcinomas and cell lines. Arch Med Res 2009; 40:256-63. [PMID: 19608014 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2009.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2008] [Accepted: 03/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Loss or downregulation of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I expression has been reported in a variety of human tumors including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). METHODS Expression of HLA class I molecules were evaluated by immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, semi-quantitative Western blot and RT-PCR in 43 tissue samples of primary oral squamous cell carcinomas (pOSCC) from Chinese patients and two OSCC cell lines. RESULTS HLA class I heavy chain of B/C locus and A locus and beta(2-)microglobulin were obviously lost or downregulated in pOSCC with the percentage of 31, 55 and 35% respectively. The expression of HLA B/C, LMP2, LMP7, LMP10 and PA28beta in OSCC cell lines was also presumably reduced in comparison with normal epithelial cell line. CONCLUSIONS These data suggested that the downregulation of HLA class I molecules in OSCC was closely associated with the low-efficient transcription and abnormality of post-transcription regulation of HLA class I genes and antigen presentation-related genes. These results can add more light to the mechanism by which OSCC escape from immunological surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiusha Tang
- The Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease of Education Ministry, Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Southeast University Medical School, Jiangsu Province, China
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Seliger B. Molecular mechanisms of MHC class I abnormalities and APM components in human tumors. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2008; 57:1719-26. [PMID: 18408926 PMCID: PMC11030176 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-008-0515-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Accepted: 03/27/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Tumor immune escape plays a critical role in cancer, but the mechanisms involved in this process have still to be defined. In the recent years, progress has been made in understanding how peptides presented by MHC class I molecules were generated, in particular which proteases are involved in this process and how intracellular pathways influence antigen presentation in professional antigen-presenting cells and in various types of malignancies. Different MHC class I abnormalities have been found in solid tumors of distinct origin, but also in hematopoietic diseases. These include structural alterations such as total, haplotype and allelic loss of the MHC class I heavy chain, deletions and point mutations, in particular in beta2-microglobulin and TAP1 as well as dysregulation of various components of the MHC class I antigen processing machinery (APM), which could occur at the epigenetic, transcriptional and posttranscriptional level. The lack or downmodulation of the expression of single or multiple components of the MHC class I antigen processing pathway may avoid the recognition of tumor cells by tumor-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes. This review will give an overview of the underlying molecular mechanisms of MHC class I abnormalities in human tumors of distinct histology, which also might have an impact on the design of T cell-based immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Seliger
- Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Medical Immunology, Magdeburger Str. 2, 06112 Halle (Saale), Germany.
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12
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Presentation of Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase, a Self-Tumor Antigen, is Down-regulated by Histone Deacetylase Inhibition. Cancer Res 2008; 68:8085-93. [DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-08-1014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Ghosh D, Beavis RC, Wilkins JA. The Identification and Characterization of Membranome Components. J Proteome Res 2008; 7:1572-83. [DOI: 10.1021/pr070509u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dhimankrishna Ghosh
- Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Departments of Internal Medicine, Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 3P4, Canada
| | - Ron C. Beavis
- Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Departments of Internal Medicine, Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 3P4, Canada
| | - John A. Wilkins
- Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Departments of Internal Medicine, Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, and Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 3P4, Canada
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