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Di X, Yan B, Liu J, Wu C, Yu X, Smith CL, Yang M. Transgenerational effects of multiple mating in Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10189. [PMID: 37325727 PMCID: PMC10266576 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyandrous mating can result in sexual conflict and/or promote the evolution of mating patterns. Does multiple mating by females support the genetic benefits hypothesis and can it be validated as an evolutionary strategy? If we are to decipher the consequences of sexual interactions and understand the interplay of sexual conflict and multiple generational benefits, the transgenerational effects need to be followed over multiple generations. We investigated the effects of three mating patterns, single mating, repeated mating, and multiple mating, on parental Spodoptera litura copulation behavior, and then identified the impact on the development, survival, and fecundity of the F1 and F2 generations. Fecundity was not significantly affected in the F1 generation but was substantially enhanced in the F2 generation. There was a reversal of offspring fitness across the F2 generations from the F1 generations in progeny produced by multiple mating. In addition, the intrinsic rate of increase, finite rate of increase and net reproductive rate in the F1 generation the multiple mating treatment was significantly lower than in the single mating treatment, but there was no apparent effect on the F2 generation. Repeated mating had no significant effects on progeny fitness. We postulate that multiple mating imposes cross-transgenerational effects and may ultimately influence multigenerational fitness in S. litura.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue‐yuan Di
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou UniversityMinistry of AgricultureGuiyangChina
| | - Bin Yan
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou UniversityMinistry of AgricultureGuiyangChina
| | - Jian‐feng Liu
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou UniversityMinistry of AgricultureGuiyangChina
| | - Cheng‐xu Wu
- College of ForestryGuizhou UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - Xiao‐fei Yu
- College of Tobacco ScienceGuizhou UniversityGuiyangChina
| | - Cecil L. Smith
- Georgia Museum of Natural HistoryUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGeorgiaUSA
| | - Mao‐fa Yang
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Agricultural Pest Management of the Mountainous Region, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Crop Pest in Guiyang, Institute of Entomology, Guizhou UniversityMinistry of AgricultureGuiyangChina
- College of Tobacco ScienceGuizhou UniversityGuiyangChina
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Pre-maturation social experience affects female reproductive strategies and offspring quality in a highly polyandrous insect. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02917-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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3
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Hook KA. No support for the sexy-sperm hypothesis in the seed beetle: Sons of monandrous females fare better in post-copulatory competition. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:11742-11753. [PMID: 30598772 PMCID: PMC6303747 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The sexy-sperm hypothesis posits that polyandrous females derive an indirect fitness benefit from multi-male mating because they increase the probability their eggs are fertilized by males whose sperm have high fertilizing efficiency, which is assumed to be heritable and conferred on their sons. However, whether this process occurs is contentious because father-to-son heritability may be constrained by the genetic architecture underlying traits important in sperm competition within certain species. Previous empirical work has revealed such genetic constraints in the seed beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus, a model system in sperm competition studies in which female multi-male mating is ubiquitous. Using the seed beetle, I tested a critical prediction of the sexy-sperm hypothesis that polyandrous females produce sons that are on average more successful under sperm competition than sons from monandrous females. Contrary to the prediction of the sexy-sperm hypothesis, I found that sons from monandrous females had significantly higher relative paternity in competitive double matings. Moreover, post hoc analyses revealed that these sons produced significantly larger ejaculates when second to mate, despite being smaller. This study is the first to provide empirical evidence for post-copulatory processes favoring monandrous sons and discusses potential explanations for the unexpected bias in paternity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin A. Hook
- Department of Neurobiology and BehaviorCornell UniversityIthacaNew York
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4
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Wu Q, Wen L, Chen J, Li D, Jiao X. Experimental evidence for the genetic benefits of female mate choice in the monandrous wolf spider Pardosa astrigera. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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5
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Worthington AM, Kelly CD. Direct costs and benefits of multiple mating: Are high female mating rates due to ejaculate replenishment? Behav Processes 2016; 124:115-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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6
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Alfaro-Núñez A, Jensen MP, Abreu-Grobois FA. Does polyandry really pay off? The effects of multiple mating and number of fathers on morphological traits and survival in clutches of nesting green turtles at Tortuguero. PeerJ 2015; 3:e880. [PMID: 25870773 PMCID: PMC4393808 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the long debate of whether or not multiple mating benefits the offspring, studies still show contradictory results. Multiple mating takes time and energy. Thus, if females fertilize their eggs with a single mating, why to mate more than once? We investigated and inferred paternal identity and number of sires in 12 clutches (240 hatchlings) of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nests at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Paternal alleles were inferred through comparison of maternal and hatchling genotypes, and indicated multiple paternity in at least 11 of the clutches (92%). The inferred average number of fathers was three (ranging from 1 to 5). Moreover, regression analyses were used to investigate for correlation of inferred clutch paternity with morphological traits of hatchlings fitness (emergence success, length, weight and crawling speed), the size of the mother, and an environmental variable (incubation temperature). We suggest and propose two different comparative approaches for evaluating morphological traits and clutch paternity, in order to infer greater offspring survival. First, clutches coded by the exact number of fathers and second by the exact paternal contribution (fathers who gives greater proportion of the offspring per nest). We found significant differences (P < 0.05) in clutches coded by the exact number of fathers for all morphological traits. A general tendency of higher values in offspring sired by two to three fathers was observed for the length and weight traits. However, emergence success and crawling speed showed different trends which unable us to reach any further conclusion. The second approach analysing the paternal contribution showed no significant difference (P > 0.05) for any of the traits. We conclude that multiple paternity does not provide any extra benefit in the morphological fitness traits or the survival of the offspring, when analysed following the proposed comparative statistical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alonzo Alfaro-Núñez
- Center for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark
| | - Michael P Jensen
- Marine Mammal and Turtle Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , La Jolla, CA , United States
| | - F Alberto Abreu-Grobois
- Laboratorio de Genética, Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , México
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7
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Macke E, Magalhães S, Do-Thi Khanh H, Frantz A, Facon B, Olivieri I. Mating modifies female life history in a haplodiploid spider mite. Am Nat 2012; 179:E147-62. [PMID: 22504549 DOI: 10.1086/665002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Mating usually modifies females' resource allocation pattern, often as a result of conflicts between male and female partners. Can such a switch occur even in the absence of sexual conflicts? We addressed this issue in the haplodiploid spider mite Tetranychus urticae, whose biology and population structure considerably reduce conflicts between males and females over reproductive decisions. Comparing virgin and mated females, we tested the hypothesis that mated females modify their allocation pattern so as to maximize their probability of producing daughters. Mated females produced fewer but larger eggs, resulting in an overall similar reproductive effort but an increased probability of producing daughters, since in this species larger eggs are more likely to be fertilized and thus to become female. Moreover, mated females concentrated their reproduction early in life. Again, this might be a way to produce more daughters, since sperm is more abundant early in life. For virgins, spreading reproductive investment might be a way to save resources to extend life span, thus increasing their probability of encountering a sexual partner. Females with multiple opportunities for mating produced fewer eggs and a less female-biased sex ratio than once-mated females, raising the question of why multiple mating often occurs in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Macke
- Université Montpellier 2, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, Unité Mixte de Recherche 5554, Place Eugène Bataillon, F-34095 Montpellier cedex 05, France
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Ala-Honkola O, Friman E, Lindström K. Costs and benefits of polyandry in a placental poeciliid fish Heterandria formosa are in accordance with the parent-offspring conflict theory of placentation. J Evol Biol 2011; 24:2600-10. [PMID: 21902749 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02383.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
In viviparous species, a conflict over maternal resource allocation may arise between mothers and embryos, between siblings, and between maternal and paternal genes within an embryo due to relatedness asymmetries. We performed two experiments to study the effects of polyandry and brood relatedness on offspring growth in a placental fish (Heterandria formosa). Polyandry was beneficial as it increased the probability of pregnancy, possibly to avoid genetic incompatibility. However, females mated to four males produced offspring that had a longer maturation time than those of monandrous females. When within-brood relatedness was manipulated, the size of the newborn offspring decreased with time in low-relatedness treatment, whereas in highly related broods, offspring size was constant. Low within-brood relatedness may lead to less cooperative offspring in terms of resource extraction from the mother, which may lead to impaired development during gestation. Offspring conflict may thus reduce the benefits of polyandry in viviparous species.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Ala-Honkola
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, PO Box 65, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Jiao X, Guo L, Chen Z, Wu J, Chen J, Liu F, Li D. Experimental evidence for female-driven monandry in the wolf spider, Pardosa astrigera. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-011-1220-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Slatyer RA, Mautz BS, Backwell PRY, Jennions MD. Estimating genetic benefits of polyandry from experimental studies: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2011; 87:1-33. [PMID: 21545390 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00182.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A Slatyer
- Evolution, Ecology & Genetics, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
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11
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Gray DA. Speciation, Divergence, and the Origin of Gryllus rubens: Behavior, Morphology, and Molecules. INSECTS 2011; 2:195-209. [PMID: 26467622 PMCID: PMC4553458 DOI: 10.3390/insects2020195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 04/22/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The last 25 years or so has seen a huge resurgence of interest in speciation research. This has coincided with the development and widespread use of new tools in molecular genetics, especially DNA sequencing, to inform ecological and evolutionary questions. Here I review about a decade of work on the sister species of field crickets Gryllus texensis and G. rubens. This work has included analysis of morphology, behavior, and the mitochondrial DNA molecule. The molecular work in particular has dramatically re-shaped my interpretation of the speciational history of these taxa, suggesting that rather than ‘sister’ species we should consider these taxa as ‘mother-daughter’ species with G. rubens derived from within a subset of ancestral G. texensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Gray
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA 91330, USA.
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House CM, Bleakley BH, Walling CA, Price TAR, Stamper CE, Moore AJ. The influence of maternal effects on indirect benefits associated with polyandry. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 278:1177-82. [PMID: 20926439 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.1676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite numerous and diverse theoretical models for the indirect benefits of polyandry, empirical support is mixed. One reason for the difficulty in detecting indirect benefits of polyandry may be that these are subtle and are mediated by environmental effects, such as maternal effects. Maternal effects may be especially important if females allocate resources to their offspring depending on the characteristics of their mating partners. We test this hypothesis in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides, a species that provides extensive and direct parental care to offspring. We used a fully factorial design and mated females to one, two, three, four or five different males and manipulated conditions so that their offspring received reduced (12 h) or full (ca 72 h) maternal care. We found that average offspring fitness increased with full maternal care but there was no significant effect of polyandry or the interaction between the duration of maternal care and the level of polyandry on offspring fitness. Thus, although polyandry could provide a mechanism for biasing paternity towards high quality or compatible males, and variation in parental care matters, we found no evidence that female N. vespilloides gain indirect benefits by using parental care to bias the allocation of resources under different mating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa M House
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, Cornwall TR10 9EZ, UK
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Sagebakken G, Ahnesjö I, Braga Goncalves I, Kvarnemo C. Multiply mated males show higher embryo survival in a paternally caring fish. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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15
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Olsson M, Wapstra E, Schwartz T, Madsen T, Ujvari B, Uller T. IN HOT PURSUIT: FLUCTUATING MATING SYSTEM AND SEXUAL SELECTION IN SAND LIZARDS. Evolution 2010; 65:574-83. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01152.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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16
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Liu XP, He HM, Kuang XJ, Xue FS. A comparison of female fitness between monogamy and polyandry in the cabbage beetle, Colaphellus bowringi. Anim Behav 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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17
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Gershman SN. Large Numbers of Matings Give Female Field Crickets a Direct Benefit but not a Genetic Benefit. JOURNAL OF INSECT BEHAVIOR 2010; 23:59-68. [PMID: 20046833 PMCID: PMC2797419 DOI: 10.1007/s10905-009-9195-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/24/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Female crickets can potentially gain both direct and indirect benefits from mating multiple times with different males. Most studies have only examined the effects of small numbers of matings, although female crickets are capable of mating many times. The goal of this paper is to examine the direct and indirect benefits of mating large numbers of times for female reproductive success. In a previous experiment, female Gryllus vocalis were found to gain diminishing direct benefits from mating large numbers of times. In this study I attempt to determine whether mating large numbers of times yields similar diminishing returns on female indirect benefits. Virgin female Gryllus vocalis crickets were assigned to mate five, ten or 15 times with either the same or different males. Females that mated more times gained direct benefits in terms of laying more eggs and more fertilized eggs. Females that mated with different males rather than mating repeatedly with the same male did not have higher offspring hatching success, a result that is contrary to other published results comparing female reproductive success with repeated versus different partners. These results suggest that females that mate large numbers of times fail to gain additional genetic benefits from doing so.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan N. Gershman
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790-4120 USA
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House CM, Walling CA, Stamper CE, Moore AJ. Females benefit from multiple mating but not multiple mates in the burying beetleNicrophorus vespilloides. J Evol Biol 2009; 22:1961-6. [PMID: 19682308 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01800.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C M House
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
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García-González F. Male genetic quality and the inequality between paternity success and fertilization success: consequences for studies of sperm competition and the evolution of polyandry. Evolution 2008; 62:1653-1665. [PMID: 18315573 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00362.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Studies of postcopulatory sexual selection typically estimate a male's fertilization success from his paternity success (P2) calculated at hatching or birth. However, P2 may be affected by differential embryo viability, thereby confounding estimations of true fertilization success (F2). This study examines the effects of variation in the ability of males to influence embryo viability upon the inequality between P2 and F2. It also investigates the consequences of this inequality for testing the hypothesis that polyandrous females accrue viability benefits for their offspring through facilitation of sperm competition (good-sperm model). Simulations of competitive mating trials show that although relative measures of male reproductive success tend to underestimate the strength of underlying good-sperm processes, good-sperm processes can be seriously overestimated using P2 values if males influence the viability of the embryos they sire. This study cautions the interpretation of P2 values as a proxy for fertilization success or sperm competitiveness in studies of postcopulatory sexual selection, and highlights that the good-sperm hypothesis needs empirical support from studies able to identify and separate unequivocally the males' ability to win fertilizations from their ability to influence the development of embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco García-González
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia.
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Klemme I, Ylönen H, Eccard JA. Long-term fitness benefits of polyandry in a small mammal, the bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus. Proc Biol Sci 2008; 275:1095-100. [PMID: 18270151 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyandry, i.e. mating with multiple males within one reproductive event, is a common female mating strategy but its adaptive function is often unclear. We tested whether polyandrous females gain genetic benefits by comparing fitness traits of monandrous (mated twice with a single male) and polyandrous (mated twice with two different males) female bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus. We raised the offspring in the laboratory until adulthood and measured their body size, before releasing them to outdoor enclosures to overwinter. At the onset of the breeding season in the following spring, we found that offspring of polyandrous females performed significantly better at reproduction than those of monandrous females. This was mainly due to sons of polyandrous females producing significantly more offspring than those of monandrous females. No significant differences were found for offspring body mass or winter survival between the two treatments. Our results appear to provide evidence that bank vole females gain long-term benefits from polyandry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines Klemme
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland.
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House CM, Evans GMV, Smiseth PT, Stamper CE, Walling CA, Moore AJ. The evolution of repeated mating in the burying beetle, Nicrophorus vespilloides. Evolution 2008; 62:2004-14. [PMID: 18489722 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2008.00422.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Animals of many species accept or solicit recurring copulations with the same partner; i.e., show repeated mating. An evolutionary explanation for this excess requires that the advantages of repeated mating outweigh the costs, and that behavioral components of repeated mating are genetically influenced. There can be benefits of repeated mating for males when there is competition for fertilizations or where the opportunities for inseminating additional mates are rare or unpredictable. The benefits to females are less obvious and, depending on underlying genetic architecture, repeated mating may have evolved as a correlated response to selection on males. We investigated the evolution of repeated mating with the same partner in the burying beetle Nicrophorus vespilloides by estimating the direct and indirect fitness benefits for females and the genetics of behavior underlying repeated mating. The number of times a female mated had minimal direct and no indirect fitness benefits for females. The behavioral components of repeated mating (mating frequency and mating speed) were moderately negatively genetically correlated in males and uncorrelated in females. However, mating frequency and mating speed were strongly positively genetically correlated between males and females. Our data suggest that repeated mating by female N. vespilloides may have evolved as a correlated response to selection on male behavior rather than in response to benefits of repeated mating for females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa M House
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, Penryn, TR10 9EZ, United Kingdom.
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