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Lopes-Marques M, Ruivo R, Fonseca E, Teixeira A, Castro LFC. Unusual loss of chymosin in mammalian lineages parallels neo-natal immune transfer strategies. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2017; 116:78-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Szecsi PB. The aspartic proteases. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/00365519209104650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Foltmann B. Chymosin: A short review on foetal and neonatal gastric proteases. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/00365519209104656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Feng S, Li W, Lin H. Characterization and expression of the pepsinogen C gene and determination of pepsin-like enzyme activity from orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 149:275-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2007] [Revised: 09/21/2007] [Accepted: 09/21/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Narita Y, Oda SI, Kageyama T. Rodent monophyly deduced from the unique gastric proteinase constitution and molecular phylogenetic analyses using pepsinogen-C cDNA sequences. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2006; 1:273-82. [PMID: 20483259 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2006.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Revised: 04/16/2006] [Accepted: 04/18/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Pepsinogens are zymogens of pepsins, the gastric digestive proteinases. Although pepsinogen A is predominant in most mammalian species hitherto known, pepsinogen C is expressed exclusively and the lack of pepsinogen A is evidenced in the rat and guinea pig. Furthermore, in these two rodents, considerable amount of procathepsin E is also expressed in gastric mucosa although it is almost undetectable in other mammals. In this paper, in order to clarify whether such unique gastric proteinase constitution is common among rodents, we carried out purification and characterization of gastric proteinases, and molecular cloning of pepsinogen-C cDNAs from several rodent species including the degu and coypu. Pepsinogen C and procathepsin E were isolated but pepsinogen A was undetectable in the rodents, leading to the conclusion that that rodents commonly share the unique gastric proteinase constitution. This feature could be treated as a new "molecular synapomorphy", supporting strongly monophyly of the order Rodentia. From the molecular phylogenetic analyses of pepsinogen-C cDNA sequences, monophyly of the order Rodentia was also supported by the analyses with high statistic reliabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Narita
- Center for Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama 484-8506, Japan
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Kageyama T. Role of S'1 loop residues in the substrate specificities of pepsin A and chymosin. Biochemistry 2005; 43:15122-30. [PMID: 15568804 DOI: 10.1021/bi048440g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Proteolytic specificities of human pepsin A and monkey chymosin were investigated with a variety of oligopeptides as substrates. Human pepsin A had a strict preference for hydrophobic/aromatic residues at P'1, while monkey chymosin showed a diversified preferences accommodating charged residues as well as hydrophobic/aromatic ones. A comparison of residues forming the S'1 subsite between mammalian pepsins A and chymosins demonstrated the presence of conservative residues including Tyr(189), Ile(213), and Ile(300) and group-specific residues in the 289-299 loop region near the C terminus. The group-specific residues consisted of hydrophobic residues in pepsin A (Met(289), Leu/Ile/Val(291), and Leu(298)) and charged or polar residues in chymosins (Asp/Glu(289) and Gln/His/Lys(298)). Because the residues in the loop appeared to be involved in the unique specificities of respective types of enzymes, site-directed mutagenesis was undertaken to replace pepsin-A-specific residues by chymosin-specific ones and vice versa. A yeast expression vector for glutathione-S-transferase fusion protein was newly developed for expression of mutant proteins. The specificities of pepsin-A mutants could be successfully altered to the chymosin-like preference and those of chymosin mutants, to pepsin-like specificities, confirming residues in the S'1 loop to be essential for unique proteolytic properties of the enzymes. An increase in preference for charged residues at P'1 in pepsin-A mutants might have been due to an increase in the hydrogen-bonding interactions. In chymosin mutants, the reverse is possible. The changes in the catalytic efficiency for peptides having charged residues at P'1 were dominated by k(cat) rather than K(m) values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Kageyama
- Center for Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama 484-8506, Japan. kageyama@ pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
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Buddington RK, Elnif J, Malo C, Donahoo JB. Activities of gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal brush-border membrane enzymes during postnatal development of dogs. Am J Vet Res 2003; 64:627-34. [PMID: 12755304 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To measure activities of digestive enzymes during postnatal development in dogs. SAMPLE POPULATION Gastrointestinal tract tissues obtained from 110 Beagles ranging from neonatal to adult dogs. PROCEDURE Pepsin and lipase activities were measured in gastric contents, and amylase, lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin activities were measured in small intestinal contents and pancreatic tissue. Activities of lactase, sucrase, 4 peptidases, and enteropeptidase were assayed in samples of mucosa obtained from 3 regions of the small intestine. RESULTS Gastric pH was low at all ages. Pepsin was not detected until day 21, and activity increased between day 63 and adulthood. Activities of amylase and lipase in contents of the small intestine and pancreatic tissue were lower during suckling than after weaning. Activities of trypsin and chymotrypsin did not vary among ages for luminal contents, whereas activities associated with pancreatic tissue decreased between birth and adulthood for trypsin but increased for chymotrypsin. Lactase and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase activities were highest at birth, whereas the activities of sucrase and the 4 peptidases increased after birth. Enteropeptidase was detected only in the proximal region of the small intestine at all ages. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Secretions in the gastrointestinal tract proximal to the duodenum, enzymes in milk, and other digestive mechanisms compensate for low luminal activities of pancreatic enzymes during the perinatal period. Postnatal changes in digestive secretions influence nutrient availability, concentrations of signaling molecules, and activity of antimicrobial compounds that inhibit pathogens. Matching sources of nutrients to digestive abilities will improve the health of dogs during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randal K Buddington
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Science, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
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Narita Y, Oda SI, Moriyama A, Kageyama T. Primary structure, unique enzymatic properties, and molecular evolution of pepsinogen B and pepsin B. Arch Biochem Biophys 2002; 404:177-85. [PMID: 12147255 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9861(02)00209-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Purification of pepsinogen B from dog stomach was achieved. Activation of pepsinogen B to pepsin B is likely to proceed through a one-step pathway although the rate is very slow. Pepsin B hydrolyzes various peptides including beta-endorphin, insulin B chain, dynorphin A, and neurokinin A, with high specificity for the cleavage of the Phe-X bonds. The stability of pepsin B in alkaline pH is noteworthy, presumably due to its less acidic character. The complete primary structure of pepsinogen B was clarified for the first time through the molecular cloning of the respective cDNA. Molecular evolutional analyses show that pepsinogen B is not included in other known pepsinogen groups and constitutes an independent cluster in the consensus tree. Pepsinogen B might be a sister group of pepsinogen C and the divergence of these two zymogens seems to be the latest event of pepsinogen evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Narita
- Center for Human Evolution Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama 484-8506, Japan.
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Narita Y, Oda S, Takenaka O, Kageyama T. Phylogenetic position of Eulipotyphla inferred from the cDNA sequences of pepsinogens A and C. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2001; 21:32-42. [PMID: 11603935 DOI: 10.1006/mpev.2001.0996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although to date the phylogenetic position of the provisional order Eulipotyphla has been assessed by various molecular markers, it has not been conclusively clarified due to low statistical supporting values and inconsistent results. To clarify the phylogenetic position of Eulipotyphla, we cloned cDNAs for pepsinogens A and C from five mammalian species belonging to four different orders and determined their nucleotide sequences. Molecular phylogenetic analysis based on the 1st and 2nd codon positions of the protein-coding region of cDNA sequences strongly supported the close relationship between Eulipotyphla and Chiroptera. Carnivora was found to be a sister group to these two orders. The monophyly of the order Rodentia and that of the cohort Glires (Rodentia and Lagomorpha) was also shown by the present phylogenetic trees of pepsinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Narita
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama 484-8506, Japan
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Abstract
The number of reports on enzymes from cold adapted organisms has increased significantly over the past years, and reveals that adaptive strategies for functioning at low temperature varies among enzymes. However, the high catalytic efficiency at low temperature seems, for the majority of cold active enzymes, to be accompanied by a reduced thermal stability. Increased molecular flexibility to compensate for the low working temperature, is therefore still the most dominating theory for cold adaptation, although there also seem to be other adaptive strategies. The number of experimentally determined 3D structures of enzymes possessing cold adaptation features is still limited, and restricts a structural rationalization for cold activity. The present summary of structural characteristics, based on comparative studies on crystal structures (7), homology models (7), and amino acid sequences (24), reveals that there are no common structural feature that can account for the low stability, increased catalytic efficiency, and proposed molecular flexibility. Analysis of structural features that are thought to be important for stability (e.g. intra-molecular hydrogen bonds and ion-pairs, proline-, methionine-, glycine-, or arginine content, surface hydrophilicity, helix stability, core packing), indicates that each cold adapted enzyme or enzyme system use different small selections of structural adjustments for gaining increased molecular flexibility that in turn give rise to increased catalytic efficiency and reduced stability. Nevertheless, there seem to be a clear correlation between cold adaptation and reduced number of interactions between structural domains or subunits. Cold active enzymes also seem, to a large extent, to increase their catalytic activity by optimizing the electrostatics at and around the active site.
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Affiliation(s)
- A O Smalås
- Protein Crystallography Group, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Tromsø, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway.
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Kageyama T, Ichinose M, Tsukada-Kato S, Omata M, Narita Y, Moriyama A, Yonezawa S. Molecular cloning of neonate/infant-specific pepsinogens from rat stomach mucosa and their expressional change during development. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 267:806-12. [PMID: 10673373 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1999.2047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
To clarify the nature of rat neonate/infant-specific pepsinogens, we carried out their purification and molecular cloning. Prochymosin was found to be the major neonatal pepsinogen. The general proteolytic activity of its active form, chymosin, was, however, lower than those of pepsins A and C which are predominant in adult animals. Molecular cloning of rat prochymosin cDNA was achieved along with cDNA for another neonate-specific pepsinogen, pepsinogen F, although determination of pepsinogen F in neonatal gastric mucosa was unsuccessful, presumably due to its lack of proteolytic activity or different proteolytic specificity. Northern blot analysis confirmed that genes for prochymosin and pepsinogen F are expressed only at neonatal/infant stages and the switching of gene expression to that of pepsinogen C occurred at late infant stages. A phylogenetic tree based on nucleotide sequences showed clearly that pepsinogens fall into four major groups, namely prochymosin and pepsinogen F of the neonate/infant and pepsinogens A and C of adult animals. Although, to date, prochymosin and pepsinogen F were believed to be expressed in only a limited number of mammals, the present results suggest that they might be expressed at the neonatal/infant stage in a variety of mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kageyama
- Center for Human Evolutionary Modeling Research, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, 484-8506, Japan.
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Richter C, Tanaka T, Yada RY. Mechanism of activation of the gastric aspartic proteinases: pepsinogen, progastricsin and prochymosin. Biochem J 1998; 335 ( Pt 3):481-90. [PMID: 9794784 PMCID: PMC1219805 DOI: 10.1042/bj3350481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The gastric aspartic proteinases (pepsin A, pepsin B, gastricsin and chymosin) are synthesized in the gastric mucosa as inactive precursors, known as zymogens. The gastric zymogens each contain a prosegment (i.e. additional residues at the N-terminus of the active enzyme) that serves to stabilize the inactive form and prevent entry of the substrate to the active site. Upon ingestion of food, each of the zymogens is released into the gastric lumen and undergoes conversion into active enzyme in the acidic gastric juice. This activation reaction is initiated by the disruption of electrostatic interactions between the prosegment and the active enzyme moiety at acidic pH values. The conversion of the zymogen into its active form is a complex process, involving a series of conformational changes and bond cleavage steps that lead to the unveiling of the active site and ultimately the removal and dissociation of the prosegment from the active centre of the enzyme. During this activation reaction, both the prosegment and the active enzyme undergo changes in conformation, and the proteolytic cleavage of the prosegment can occur in one or more steps by either an intra- or inter-molecular reaction. This variability in the mechanism of proteolysis appears to be attributable in part to the structure of the prosegment. Because of the differences in the activation mechanisms among the four types of gastric zymogens and between species of the same zymogen type, no single model of activation can be proposed. The mechanism of activation of the gastric aspartic proteinases and the contribution of the prosegment to this mechanism are discussed, along with future directions for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Richter
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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Rao MB, Tanksale AM, Ghatge MS, Deshpande VV. Molecular and biotechnological aspects of microbial proteases. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1998; 62:597-635. [PMID: 9729602 PMCID: PMC98927 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.62.3.597-635.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1043] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteases represent the class of enzymes which occupy a pivotal position with respect to their physiological roles as well as their commercial applications. They perform both degradative and synthetic functions. Since they are physiologically necessary for living organisms, proteases occur ubiquitously in a wide diversity of sources such as plants, animals, and microorganisms. Microbes are an attractive source of proteases owing to the limited space required for their cultivation and their ready susceptibility to genetic manipulation. Proteases are divided into exo- and endopeptidases based on their action at or away from the termini, respectively. They are also classified as serine proteases, aspartic proteases, cysteine proteases, and metalloproteases depending on the nature of the functional group at the active site. Proteases play a critical role in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. Based on their classification, four different types of catalytic mechanisms are operative. Proteases find extensive applications in the food and dairy industries. Alkaline proteases hold a great potential for application in the detergent and leather industries due to the increasing trend to develop environmentally friendly technologies. There is a renaissance of interest in using proteolytic enzymes as targets for developing therapeutic agents. Protease genes from several bacteria, fungi, and viruses have been cloned and sequenced with the prime aims of (i) overproduction of the enzyme by gene amplification, (ii) delineation of the role of the enzyme in pathogenecity, and (iii) alteration in enzyme properties to suit its commercial application. Protein engineering techniques have been exploited to obtain proteases which show unique specificity and/or enhanced stability at high temperature or pH or in the presence of detergents and to understand the structure-function relationships of the enzyme. Protein sequences of acidic, alkaline, and neutral proteases from diverse origins have been analyzed with the aim of studying their evolutionary relationships. Despite the extensive research on several aspects of proteases, there is a paucity of knowledge about the roles that govern the diverse specificity of these enzymes. Deciphering these secrets would enable us to exploit proteases for their applications in biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Rao
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune 411008, India
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Kageyama T, Ichinose M, Miki K, Moriyama A, Yonezawa S, Tanji M, Athauda SB, Takahashi K. Isolation, characterization, and structure of procathepsin E and cathepsin E from the gastric mucosa of guinea pig. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1995; 362:211-21. [PMID: 8540321 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1871-6_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T Kageyama
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Kyoto University, Aichi, Japan
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Kageyama T, Ichinose M, Tsukada S, Miki K, Kurokawa K, Koiwai O, Tanji M, Yakabe E, Athauda S, Takahashi K. Gastric procathepsin E and progastricsin from guinea pig. Purification, molecular cloning of cDNAs, and characterization of enzymatic properties, with special reference to procathepsin E. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)42024-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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