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Wan X, Wu Z, Sun D, Long L, Song Q, Gao C. Cytological characteristics of blueberry fruit development. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 24:184. [PMID: 38475704 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-024-04809-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Using the blueberry cultivar "Powderblue" after pollination, fruits at different developmental stages were collected for study. The transverse and longitudinal diameters, individual fruit weight, and fruit water content were measured during their development. Employing tissue sectioning and microscopy techniques, we systematically studied the morphological features and anatomical structures of the fruits and seeds at various developmental stages, aiming to elucidate the cytological patterns during blueberry fruit development. The results of our study revealed that the "Powderblue" blueberry fruit growth and development followed a double "S" curve. Mature "Powderblue" blueberries were blue-black in color, elliptical in shape, with five locules, an inferior ovary, and an average fruit weight of 1.73 ± 0.17 g, and a moisture content of 78.865 ± 0.9%. Blueberry fruit flesh cells were densely arranged with no apparent intercellular spaces, and mesocarp cells accounted for 52.06 ± 7.4% of fruit cells. In the early fruit development stages, the fruit flesh cells were rapidly dividing, significantly increasing in number but without greatly affecting the fruit's morphological characteristics. During the later stages of fruit development, the expansion of the fruit flesh cells became prominent, resulting in a noticeable increase in the fruit's dimensions. Except for the epidermal cells, cells in all fruit tissues showed varying degrees of rupture as fruit development progressed, with the extent of cell rupture increasing, becoming increasingly apparent as the fruit gradually softened. Additionally, numerous brachysclereids (stone cells) appeared in the fruit flesh cells. Stone cells are mostly present individually in the fruit flesh tissue, while in the placental tissue, they often group together. The "Powderblue" blueberry seeds were light brown, 4.13 ± 0.42 mm long, 2.2 ± 0.14 mm wide, with each fruit containing 50-60 seeds. The "Powderblue" seeds mainly consisted of the seed coat, endosperm, and embryo. The embryo was located at the chalazal end in the center of the endosperm and was spatially separated. The endosperm, occupying the vast majority of the seed volume, comprised both the chalazal and outer endosperm, and the endosperm developed and matured before the embryo. As the seed developed, the seed coat was gradually lignified and consisted of palisade-like stone cells externally and epidermal layer cells internally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianqin Wan
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Zewei Wu
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Dongchan Sun
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Li Long
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Qiling Song
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
| | - Chao Gao
- Institute for Forest Resources and Environment of Guizhou, Key laboratory of forest cultivation in plateau mountain of Guizhou province, College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China.
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Patil AY, Hegde C, Savanur G, Kanakmood SM, Contractor AM, Shirashyad VB, Chivate RM, Kotturshettar BB, Mathad SN, Patil MB, Soudagar MEM, Fattah IMR. Biomimicking Nature-Inspired Design Structures-An Experimental and Simulation Approach Using Additive Manufacturing. Biomimetics (Basel) 2022; 7:biomimetics7040186. [PMID: 36412714 PMCID: PMC9680522 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics7040186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether it is a plant- or animal-based bio-inspiration design, it has always been able to address one or more product/component optimisation issues. Today's scientists or engineers look to nature for an optimal, economically viable, long-term solution. Similarly, a proposal is made in this current work to use seven different bio-inspired structures for automotive impact resistance. All seven of these structures are derived from plant and animal species and are intended to be tested for compressive loading to achieve load-bearing capacity. The work may even cater to optimisation techniques to solve the real-time problem using algorithm-based generative shape designs built using CATIA V6 in unit dimension. The samples were optimised with Rhino 7 software and then simulated with ANSYS workbench. To carry out the comparative study, an experimental work of bioprinting in fused deposition modelling (3D printing) was carried out. The goal is to compare the results across all formats and choose the best-performing concept. The results were obtained for compressive load, flexural load, and fatigue load conditions, particularly the number of life cycles, safety factor, damage tolerance, and bi-axiality indicator. When compared to previous research, the results are in good agreement. Because of their multifunctional properties combining soft and high stiffness and lightweight properties of novel materials, novel materials have many potential applications in the medical, aerospace, and automotive sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Y. Patil
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
- Correspondence: (A.Y.P.); (I.M.R.F.)
| | - Chandrashekhar Hegde
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | - Guruprasad Savanur
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | | | | | - Vinay B. Shirashyad
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | - Rahul M. Chivate
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | | | - Shridhar N. Mathad
- Department of Physics, KLE Institute of Technology, Hubballi 580030, India
| | | | - Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology, Glocal University, Delhi-Yamunotri Marg, Saharanpur 247121, India
- Department of VLSI Microelectronics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai 602105, India
| | - Islam Md Rizwanul Fattah
- Centre for Green Technology (CGT), School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.Y.P.); (I.M.R.F.)
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Ghimire A, Chen PY. Seed protection strategies of the brainy Elaeocarpus ganitrus endocarp: Gradient motif yields fracture tolerance. Acta Biomater 2022; 138:430-442. [PMID: 34728425 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Be it animals or plants, most of the organism's offspring come into existence after their embryos develop inside a protective shell. In plants, these hard protective shells are called endocarps. They serve the function of nourishing and protecting the seeds from external mechanical damage. Through evolution, endocarps of plants have developed various structural strategies to protect the enclosed seeds from external threats, and these strategies can vary according to the habitat or lifestyle of a particular plant. One such intriguing hard plant shell is the endocarp of the Elaeocarpus ganitrus fruit. It mostly grows in South Asia's mountainous forests, and its endocarps are known in the local communities as unbreakable and everlasting prayer beads. We report an in-depth investigation on microstructure, tomography, and mechanical properties to cast light on its performance and the underlying structure-property relation. The 3D structural quantifications by micro-CT demonstrate that the endocarp has gradient microarchitecture. In addition, the endocarp also exhibits gradient hardness and stiffness. The toughening mechanisms arising from the layered cellular structure enable the endocarps to withstand higher loads up to 5000 N before they fracture. Our findings provide experimental evidence of outstanding fracture tolerance and seed protection strategies developed by Elaeocarpus ganitrus endocarp that encourage the design of synthetic fracture tolerant structures. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Endocarps are low-density plant shells that exhibit remarkable fracture resistance and energy absorption when they encounter impact by falling from high trees and prolonged compression and abrasion by the predators. Such outstanding mechanical performance originates through structural design strategies developed to protect their seeds. Here we demonstrate previously undiscovered structural features and mechanical properties of Elaeocarpus ganitrus endocarp. We scrutinize the microstructure using high-resolution x-ray tomography scans and the 3D structural quantifications reveal a gradient microstructure which is in agreement with the gradient hardness and stiffness. The multiscale hierarchical structures combined with the gradient motif yield impressive fracture tolerance in Elaeocarpus ganitrus endocarp. These findings advance the knowledge of the structure-property relation in hard plant shells, and the procured structural design strategies can be utilized to design fracture-resistant structures.
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Zhang H, Bai R, Wu F, Guo W, Yan Z, Yan Q, Zhang Y, Ma J, Zhang J. Genetic diversity, phylogenetic structure and development of core collections in Melilotus accessions from a Chinese gene bank. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13017. [PMID: 31506537 PMCID: PMC6736865 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49355-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Melilotus is an important forage legume, with high values as feed and medicine, and widely used as green manure, honey plant, and wildlife habitat enhancer. The genetic diversity, structure and subdivision of this forage crop remain unclear, and plant genetic resources are the basis of biodiversity and ecosystem diversity and have attracted increasing attention. In this study, the whole collection of 573 accessions from the National Gene Bank of Forage Germplasm (NGBFG, China) and 48 accessions from the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS, USA) in genus Melilotus were measured with respect to five seed characters: seed length, width, width-to-length ratio, circumference and 100-seed weight. Shannon' genetic diversity index (H') and phenotypic differentiation (Pst) were calculated to better describe the genetic diversity. The ITS and matK sequences were used to construct phylogenetic trees and study the genetic relationships within genus Melilotu. Based on seed morphology and molecular marker data, we preliminarily developed core collections and the sampling rates of M. albus and M. officinalis were determined to be 15% and 25%, respectively. The results obtained here provide preliminary sorting and supplemental information for the Melilotus collections in NGBFG, China, and establish a reference for further genetic breeding and other related projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, P.R. China
| | - Rong Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Fan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Wenli Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Zhuanzhuan Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Qi Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Yufei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China
| | - Jinxing Ma
- National Quality Control & Inspection Centre for Grassland Industry Products, National Animal Husbandry Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Jiyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-ecosystems; Key Laboratory of Grassland Livestock Industry Innovation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs; College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730020, P.R. China.
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Soliman S, Mohammad MG, El-Keblawy AA, Omar H, Abouleish M, Madkour M, Elnaggar A, Hosni RM. Mechanical and phytochemical protection mechanisms of Calligonum comosum in arid deserts. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192576. [PMID: 29415032 PMCID: PMC5802934 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike animals, plants are sessile organisms, lacking circulating antibodies and specialized immune cells and are exposed to various harsh environmental conditions that make them at risk of being attacked by different pathogens and herbivores. Plants produce chemo-signals to respond to the surroundings and be able to distinguish between harmless and harmful signals. In this study, the production of phytochemicals as plant signaling mechanisms and their defensive roles in disease resistance and repelling herbivores are examined in Calligonum comosum. C. comosum is a leafless standalone perennial shrub widespread in sand dunes. The plant has the ability to survive the drastic environmental conditions of the arid/ hyperarid deserts of the Arabia. Structural anatomy and phytochemicals analyses were used to identify both mechanical and chemical defensive mechanisms in C. comosum. Microscopy-based investigations indicated that stems of this species developed hard structures in its outer layers including sclerenchyma and cluster crystals of calcium oxalate (CaOx). Sclerenchyma and CaOx are difficult to be eaten by herbivores and insects and can harm their mouthparts. On the other hand, the plant developed both short-distance (local) and long-distance (systematic over limited sphere) phytochemicals-producing cells located at its outer regions that is surrounding the inner nutrient-rich vascular system (VS). Local chemical was represented by phenolic idioblasts that were released in response to plant cutting. Systematic chemical was represented by toxic volatile oil containing ~50% benzaldehyde derivative (cuminaldehyde). The oil caused strong killing effect on both mammalian cells and microbial pathogens via either direct addition or indirect exposure to its vapor. The plants lost the oil content and allowed fungal growth once cut and dried. The localization of both defensive mechanisms to the outer region of the plant seemed to protect the inner nutrient-rich VS and hence maintained the plant survival. Surprisingly, in relation to traditional folklore use as medicine, local people use only green parts of the plant and only during the winter, where the plant found devoid of volatile oil and phenolic idioblasts. Moreover, it turns into recommendations for local people to avoid any health problems caused by the plant supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameh Soliman
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Mohammad G. Mohammad
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Collage of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ali A. El-Keblawy
- Department of Applied Biology, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Research Institutes of Science and Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hany Omar
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohamed Abouleish
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE
| | - Mohamed Madkour
- Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Collage of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Attiat Elnaggar
- Research Institutes of Science and Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Racha M. Hosni
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Collage of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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Zhang W, Xue Y, Yang S, Wang Y, Zhao H. Sclereids are strong enough to support the delicate corollas: experimental and computational data evidence from Camellia sinensis (L.). Sci Rep 2017; 7:43788. [PMID: 28252101 PMCID: PMC5333139 DOI: 10.1038/srep43788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sclereids are a fundamental cell type that widely exist in higher plants and are generally thought to have a mechanical function. However, the occurrence of sclereids in the ephemeral corolla has rarely been documented and their biological significance is poorly understood. In this study, flower buds from Camellia sinensis at various ontogenetic stages were sampled, cleared, sectioned, stained, and examined using light microscopy to ascertain the morphology and distribution of sclereids and their variation. In addition, Camellia japonica plants with distinctive floral structures were investigated and compared to explore whether sclereid occurrence is associated with floral form. In particular, a computational simulation using finite element analysis was undertaken to investigate how corollas, with and without sclereids, responded to wind and rain. The results showed that sclereids have some mechanical properties that are based on their shape and distribution, which make the soft corolla strong enough to protect the inner ovary. Thus, corolla sclereids may explain how the seemingly delicate corolla performs its protective function in response to environmental stresses. These findings provide further evidence for the hypothesis that flower traits exhibit adaptive responses to abiotic factors in addition to their traditionally recognized pollinator-mediated selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Marine College, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China.,State Key Laboratory of Dao-di Herbs, National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xue
- Marine College, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Shuo Yang
- Marine College, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Yangang Wang
- Research Center of Mechanics and Mechatronic Equipment, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Hong Zhao
- Marine College, Shandong University at Weihai, Weihai 264209, China
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Horbens M, Branke D, Gärtner R, Voigt A, Stenger F, Neinhuis C. Multi-scale simulation of plant stem reinforcement by brachysclereids: A case study in apple fruit peduncles. J Struct Biol 2015; 192:116-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2015.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Horbens M, Feldner A, Höfer M, Neinhuis C. Ontogenetic tissue modification in Malus fruit peduncles: the role of sclereids. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2014; 113:105-118. [PMID: 24287811 PMCID: PMC3864733 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Apple (Malus) fruit peduncles are highly modified stems with limited secondary growth because fruit ripening lasts only one season. They must reliably connect rather heavy fruits to the branch and cope with increasing fruit weight, which induces dynamic stresses under oscillating wind loads. This study focuses on tissue modification of these small, exposed structures during fruit development. METHODS A combination of microscopic, static and dynamic mechanical tests, as well as Raman spectroscopy, was used to study structure-function relationships in peduncles of one cultivar and 12 wild species, representatively chosen from all sections of the genus Malus. Tissue differentiation and ontogenetic changes in mechanical properties of Malus peduncles were observed throughout one growing season and after successive removal of tissues. KEY RESULTS Unlike in regular stems, the vascular cambium produces mainly phloem during secondary growth. Hence, in addition to a reduced xylem, all species developed a centrally arranged sclerenchyma ring composed of fibres and brachysclereids. Based on differences in cell-wall thickness, and proportions and arrangement of sclereids, two types of peduncle construction could be distinguished. Fibres provide an increased maximum tensile strength and contribute most to the overall axial rigidity of the peduncles. Sclereids contribute insignificantly to peduncle strength; however, despite being shown to have a lower elastic modulus than fibres, they are the most effective tissue in stiffening peduncles against bending. CONCLUSIONS The experimental data revealed that sclereids originating from cortical parenchyma act as 'accessory' cells to enhance proportions of sclerenchyma during secondary growth in peduncles. The mechanism can be interpreted as an adaptation to continuously increasing fruit loads. Under oscillating longitudinal stresses, sclereids may be regarded as regulating elements between maintenance of stiffness and viscous damping, the latter property being attributed to the cortical parenchyma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Horbens
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, D-01217 Dresden, Germany
| | - Alexander Feldner
- Institute of Plant and Wood Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Pienner Strasse 19, D-01737 Tharandt, Germany
| | - Monika Höfer
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Breeding Research on Horticultural and Fruit Crops, Pillnitzer Platz 3a, D-01326 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christoph Neinhuis
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, D-01217 Dresden, Germany
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