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Signore E, Clark RW, Schraft HA. TEMPERATURE-BASED AMBUSH SITE SELECTION IN SIDEWINDER RATTLESNAKES (CROTALUS CERASTES). SOUTHWEST NAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1894/0038-4909-65.3-4.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rulon W. Clark
- San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182 (RWC, HAS)
| | - Hannes A. Schraft
- San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182 (RWC, HAS)
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2
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Natural History of a Highly Medically Important Snake, Russell's Viper (Daboia russelii), in a Human-Dominated Indian Rural Landscape. J HERPETOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1670/20-042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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3
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Whitford MD, Freymiller GA, Higham TE, Clark RW. The Effects of Temperature on the Kinematics of Rattlesnake Predatory Strikes in Both Captive and Field Environments. Integr Org Biol 2020; 2:obaa025. [PMID: 33791566 PMCID: PMC7671150 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obaa025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The outcomes of predator-prey interactions between endotherms and ectotherms can be heavily influenced by environmental temperature, owing to the difference in how body temperature affects locomotor performance. However, as elastic energy storage mechanisms can allow ectotherms to maintain high levels of performance at cooler body temperatures, detailed analyses of kinematics are necessary to fully understand how changes in temperature might alter endotherm-ectotherm predator-prey interactions. Viperid snakes are widely distributed ectothermic mesopredators that interact with endotherms both as predator and prey. Although there are numerous studies on the kinematics of viper strikes, surprisingly few have analyzed how this rapid movement is affected by temperature. Here we studied the effects of temperature on the predatory strike performance of rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.), abundant new world vipers, using both field and captive experimental contexts. We found that the effects of temperature on predatory strike performance are limited, with warmer snakes achieving slightly higher maximum strike acceleration, but similar maximum velocity. Our results suggest that, unlike defensive strikes to predators, rattlesnakes may not attempt to maximize strike speed when attacking prey, and thus the outcomes of predatory strikes may not be heavily influenced by changes in temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Ecology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - G A Freymiller
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - T E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - R W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM, USA
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Whitford MD, Freymiller GA, Higham TE, Clark RW. The effects of temperature on the defensive strikes of rattlesnakes. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb223859. [PMID: 32561628 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.223859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Movements of ectotherms are constrained by their body temperature owing to the effects of temperature on muscle physiology. As physical performance often affects the outcome of predator-prey interactions, environmental temperature can influence the ability of ectotherms to capture prey and/or defend themselves against predators. However, previous research on the kinematics of ectotherms suggests that some species may use elastic storage mechanisms when attacking or defending, thereby mitigating the effects of sub-optimal temperature. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.) are a speciose group of ectothermic viperid snakes that rely on crypsis, rattling and striking to deter predators. We examined the influence of body temperature on the behavior and kinematics of two rattlesnake species (Crotalus oreganus helleri and Crotalus scutulatus) when defensively striking towards a threatening stimulus. We recorded defensive strikes at body temperatures ranging from 15-35°C. We found that strike speed and speed of mouth gaping during the strike were positively correlated with temperature. We also found a marginal effect of temperature on the probability of striking, latency to strike and strike outcome. Overall, warmer snakes are more likely to strike, strike faster, open their mouth faster and reach maximum gape earlier than colder snakes. However, the effects of temperature were less than would be expected for purely muscle-driven movements. Our results suggest that, although rattlesnakes are at a greater risk of predation at colder body temperatures, their decrease in strike performance may be mitigated to some extent by employing mechanisms in addition to skeletal muscle contraction (e.g. elastic energy storage) to power strikes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachi D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Ecology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Grace A Freymiller
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Timothy E Higham
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Rulon W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM 88056, USA
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Ayon RE, Putman BJ, Clark RW. Recent encounters with rattlesnakes enhance ground squirrel responsiveness to predator cues. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-017-2378-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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6
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Smith JE, Long DJ, Russell ID, Newcomb KL, Muñoz VD. Otospermophilus beecheyi(Rodentia: Sciuridae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/mspecies/sew010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Biardi J, Ho C, Marcinczyk J, Nambiar K. Isolation and identification of a snake venom metalloproteinase inhibitor from California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi) blood sera. Toxicon 2011; 58:486-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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8
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Coss RG. Evolutionary Persistence of Ground Squirrel Antisnake Behavior: Reflections on Burton's Commentary. ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1207/s15326969eco0502_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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9
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Kissner KJ, Forbes MR, Secoy DM. Rattling Behavior of Prairie Rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis viridis, Viperidae) in Relation to Sex, Reproductive Status, Body Size, and Body Temperature. Ethology 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1997.tb00146.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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Rowe MP, Owings DH. Probing, Assessment and Management during Interactions between Ground Squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae) and Rattlesnakes (Squamata: Viperidae). 2: Cues Afforded by Rattlesnake Rattling. Ethology 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1996.tb01206.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Herbert SS, Hayes WK. Denim Clothing Reduces Venom Expenditure by Rattlesnakes Striking Defensively at Model Human Limbs. Ann Emerg Med 2009; 54:830-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2009.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2009] [Revised: 08/30/2009] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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12
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Cundall D. Viper Fangs: Functional Limitations of Extreme Teeth. Physiol Biochem Zool 2009; 82:63-79. [DOI: 10.1086/594380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Blumstein DT. Feeling the heat: ground squirrels heat their tails to discourage rattlesnake attack. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:14177-8. [PMID: 17724344 PMCID: PMC1964846 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0707286104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA.
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14
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Stankowich T, Coss RG. Effects of risk assessment, predator behavior, and habitat on escape behavior in Columbian black-tailed deer. Behav Ecol 2006. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arl086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Mitrovich MJ, Cotroneo RA. USE OF PLASTICINE REPLICA SNAKES TO ELICIT ANTIPREDATOR BEHAVIOR IN THE CALIFORNIA GROUND SQUIRREL (SPERMOPHILUS BEECHEYI). SOUTHWEST NAT 2006. [DOI: 10.1894/0038-4909(2006)51[263:uoprst]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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Biardi JE, Chien DC, Coss RG. California Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi) Defenses Against Rattlesnake Venom Digestive and Hemostatic Toxins. J Chem Ecol 2006; 32:137-54. [PMID: 16525875 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-006-9357-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2004] [Revised: 08/02/2005] [Accepted: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that some mammals are able to neutralize venom from snake predators. California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) show variation among populations in their ability to bind venom and minimize damage from northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus), but the venom toxins targeted by resistance have not been investigated. Four California ground squirrel populations, selected for differences in local density or type of rattlesnake predators, were assayed for their ability to neutralize digestive and hemostatic effects of venom from three rattlesnake species. In Douglas ground squirrels (S. b. douglasii), we found that animals from a location where snakes are common showed greater inhibition of venom metalloprotease and hemolytic activity than animals from a location where snakes are rare. Effects on general proteolysis were not different. Douglas ground squirrels also reduced the metalloprotease activity of venom from sympatric northern Pacific rattlesnakes (C. o. oreganus) more than the activity of venom from allopatric western diamondback rattlesnakes (C. atrox), but enhanced the fibrinolysis of sympatric venom almost 1.8 times above baseline levels. Two Beechey ground squirrel (S. b. beecheyi) populations had similar inhibition of venoms from northern and southern Pacific rattlesnakes (C. o. helleri), despite differences between the populations in the locally prevalent predator. However, the venom toxins inhibited by Beechey squirrels varied among venom from Pacific rattlesnake subspecies, and between these venoms and venom from allopatric western diamondback rattlesnakes. Blood plasma from Beechey squirrels showed highest inhibition of metalloprotease activity of northern Pacific rattlesnake venom, general proteolytic activity and hemolysis of southern Pacific rattlesnake venom, and hemolysis by allopatric western diamondback venom. These results reveal previously cryptic variation in venom activity against resistant prey that suggests reciprocal adaptation at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Biardi
- PROF Postdoctoral Program and Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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17
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Moon BR, Tullis A. The Ontogeny of Contractile Performance and Metabolic Capacity in a High‐Frequency Muscle. Physiol Biochem Zool 2006; 79:20-30. [PMID: 16380925 DOI: 10.1086/498195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
High-performance muscles such as the shaker muscles in the tails of western diamond-backed rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox) are excellent systems for studying the relationship between contractile performance and metabolic capacity. We observed that shaker muscle contraction frequency increases dramatically with growth in small individuals but then declines gradually in large individuals. We tested whether metabolic capacity changed with performance, using shaker muscle contraction frequency as an indicator of performance and maximal activities of citrate synthase and lactate dehydrogenase as indicators of aerobic and anaerobic capacities, respectively. Contraction frequency increased 20-fold in 20-100-g individuals but then declined by approximately 30% in individuals approaching 1,000 g. Mass-independent aerobic capacity was positively correlated with contractile performance, whereas mass-independent anaerobic capacity was slightly but negatively correlated with performance; body mass was not correlated with performance. Rattle mass increased faster than the ability to generate force. Early in ontogeny, shaker muscle performance appears to be limited by aerobic capacity, but later performance becomes limited equally by aerobic capacity and the mechanical constraint of moving a larger mass without proportionally thicker muscles. This high-performance muscle appears to shift during ontogeny from a metabolic constraint to combined metabolic and mechanical constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad R Moon
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana, Lafayette, LA, 70504-2451, USA.
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18
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Biardi JE, Chien DC, Coss RG. California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi) defenses against rattlesnake venom digestive and hemostatic toxins. J Chem Ecol 2005; 31:2501-18. [PMID: 16273425 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-005-7610-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2004] [Revised: 06/20/2005] [Accepted: 07/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that some mammals are able to neutralize venom from snake predators. California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) show variation among populations in their ability to bind venom and minimize damage from northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus), but the venom toxins targeted by resistance have not been investigated. Four California ground squirrel populations, selected for differences in local density or type of rattlesnake predators, were assayed for their ability to neutralize digestive and hemostatic effects of venom from three rattlesnake species. In Douglas ground squirrels (S. b. douglasii), we found that animals from a location where snakes are common showed greater inhibition of venom metalloprotease and hemolytic activity than animals from a location where snakes are rare. Effects on general proteolysis were not different. Douglas ground squirrels also reduced the metalloprotease activity of venom from sympatric northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus oreganus) more than the activity of venom from allopatric western diamondback rattlesnakes (C. atrox), but enhanced fibrinolysis of sympatric venom almost 1.8 times above baseline levels. Two Beechey ground squirrel (S. b. beecheyi) populations had similar inhibition of venoms from northern and southern Pacific rattlesnakes (C. o. helleri), despite differences between the populations in the locally prevalent predator. However, the venom toxins inhibited by Beechey squirrels did vary among venom from Pacific rattlesnake subspecies, and between these venoms and venom from allopatric western diamondback rattlesnakes. Blood plasma from Beechey squirrels showed highest inhibition of metalloprotease activity of northern Pacific rattlesnake venom, general proteolytic activity and hemolysis of southern Pacific rattlesnake venom, and hemolysis by allopatric western diamondback venom. These results reveal previously cryptic variation in venom activity against resistant prey that suggests reciprocal adaptation at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- James E Biardi
- Postdoctoral Program and Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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19
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Ramakrishnan U, Coss RG, Schank J, Dharawat A, Kim S. Snake Species Discrimination by Wild Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata). Ethology 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01063.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Young BA. Snake bioacoustics: toward a richer understanding of the behavioral ecology of snakes. QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2004; 78:303-25. [PMID: 14528622 DOI: 10.1086/377052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Snakes are frequently described in both popular and technical literature as either deaf or able to perceive only groundborne vibrations. Physiological studies have shown that snakes are actually most sensitive to airborne vibrations. Snakes are able to detect both airborne and groundborne vibrations using their body surface (termed somatic hearing) as well as from their inner ears. The central auditory pathways for these two modes of "hearing" remain unknown. Recent experimental evidence has shown that snakes can respond behaviorally to both airborne and groundborne vibrations. The ability of snakes to contextualize the sounds and respond with consistent predatory or defensive behaviors suggests that auditory stimuli may play a larger role in the behavioral ecology of snakes than was previously realized. Snakes produce sounds in a variety of ways, and there appear to be multiple acoustic Batesian mimicry complexes among snakes. Analyses of the proclivity for sound production and the acoustics of the sounds produced within a habitat or phylogeny specific context may provide insights into the behavioral ecology of snakes. The relatively low information content in the sounds produced by snakes suggests that these sounds are not suitable for intraspecific communication. Nevertheless, given the diversity of habitats in which snakes are found, and their dual auditory pathways, some form of intraspecific acoustic communication may exist in some species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Young
- Department of Biology, Lafayette College Easton, Pennsylvania 18042, USA.
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Young BA, Aguiar A. Response of western diamondback rattlesnakesCrotalus atroxto airborne sounds. J Exp Biol 2002; 205:3087-92. [PMID: 12200411 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205.19.3087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYIn order to test the hypothesis that snakes can not only perceive airborne sounds, but also respond to them, an acoustic isolation chamber was designed and constructed to perform best within the 150-450 Hz range in which snakes perceive sound. Suspended within this acoustic chamber was a steel mesh basket designed to minimize the potential for groundborne vibrations. A synthesized tone was created out of 20 different 150 ms sounds, each separated by a 50 ms period of silence; the acoustic energy of each of the 20 sounds was concentrated between 200-400 Hz, and each sound included frequency modulation. The trial stimuli were presented to western diamondback rattlesnakes Crotalus atrox at a level 5-10 dB above their perception threshold. Four significant behavioural responses were observed upon stimulus presentation: cessation of body movements, reduction or cessation of tongue flicking, rapid jerks of the head and rattling. At least one significant behavioural response was observed in 92% of the behavioural trials. This study provides the first experimental evidence that snakes can respond behaviourally to airborne sounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce A Young
- Department of Biology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA.
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Owings DH, Rowe MP, Rundus AS. The rattling sound of rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) as a communicative resource for ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) and burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia). J Comp Psychol 2002; 116:197-205. [PMID: 12083617 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7036.116.2.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Animal communication involves very dynamic processes that can generate new uses and functions for established communicative activities. In this article, the authors describe how an aposematic signal, the rattling sound of rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis), has been exploited by 2 ecological associates of rattlesnakes: (a) California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) use incidental acoustic cues in rattling sounds to assess the danger posed by the rattling snake, and (b) burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia) defend themselves against mammalian predators by mimicking the sound of rattling. The remarkable similarity between the burrowing owl's defensive hiss and the rattlesnake's rattling reflects both exaptation and adaptation. Such exploitation of the rattling sound has favored alternations in both the structure and the deployment of rattling by rattlesnakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald H Owings
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, 95616-8686, USA.
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Moon BR, Hopp JJ, Conley KE. Mechanical trade-offs explain how performance increases without increasing cost in rattlesnake tailshaker muscle. J Exp Biol 2002; 205:667-75. [PMID: 11907056 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205.5.667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYRattling by rattlesnakes is one of the fastest vertebrate movements and involves some of the highest contraction frequencies sustained by vertebrate muscle. Rattling requires higher accelerations at higher twitch frequencies, yet a previous study showed that the cost per twitch of rattling is independent of twitch frequency. We used force and video recordings over a range of temperatures to examine how western diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox) achieve faster movements without increases in metabolic cost. The key findings are (i) that increasing muscle twitch tension trades off with decreasing twitch duration to keep the tension–time integral per twitch nearly constant over a wide range of temperatures and twitch frequencies and (ii) that decreasing lateral displacement of the rattle joint moderates the mechanical work and power required to shake the rattle at higher frequencies. These mechanical trade-offs between twitch tension and duration and between joint force and displacement explain how force, work and power increase without an increase in metabolic cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad R Moon
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Abstract
SUMMARY
The functional morphology of venom injection in Crotalus atrox was explored using high-speed digital videography combined with direct recording of venom flow using perivascular flow probes. Although venom flow was variable, in most strikes the onset of venom flow was coincidental with fang penetration, and retrograde flow (venom suction) was observed prior to fang withdrawal. The duration of venom flow was consistently less than the duration of fang penetration. The occurrence of retrograde flow, ‘dry bites’ (which accounted for 35 % of the strikes) and unilateral strikes all support a hypothesis for venom pooling in the distal portion of the venom-delivery system. No significant difference in temporal or volumetric aspects of venom flow were found between defensive strikes directed at small and large rodents. With the species and size of target held constant, the duration of venom flow, maximum venom flow rate and total venom volume were all significantly lower in predatory than in defensive strikes.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Young
- Department of Biology and Program in Neuroscience, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA.
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Swaisgood RR, Rowe MP, Owings DH. Assessment of rattlesnake dangerousness by California ground squirrels: exploitation of cues from rattling sounds. Anim Behav 1999; 57:1301-1310. [PMID: 10373264 DOI: 10.1006/anbe.1999.1095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We propose that the predator-prey relationship between California ground squirrels, Spermophilus beecheyi beecheyi, and northern Pacific rattlesnakes, Crotalus viridis oreganus, offers a compelling analogy with the well-studied case of intraspecific fighting and assessment. Because ground squirrels frequently place themselves at risk by harassing rattlesnakes, they stand to benefit from assessment strategies which serve to mediate risk. For example, larger and warmer snakes are more dangerous than smaller and cooler ones. These determinants of dangerousness covary with acoustic characteristics of the rattling sounds elicited by squirrel harassment. To determine whether squirrels use these acoustic cues regarding rattlesnake body size and body temperature, we played back rattling and control sounds to individuals in a population of free-living squirrels. The squirrels clearly associated rattling sounds with rattlesnakes and proved capable of assessing both determinants of rattlesnake dangerousness on the basis of acoustic cues. Several features of squirrel behaviour covaried with these acoustic cues, including tail flagging, bipedal posture, and hesitancy to reapproach the area where the rattle was heard. Many of these behavioural differences were sustained for up to 10 min postplayback. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- RR Swaisgood
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis
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29
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FitzGibbon CD. The costs and benefits of predator inspection behaviour in Thomson's gazelles. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00164184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Curio E. Proximate and Developmental Aspects of Antipredator Behavior. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60407-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Coss RG. Context and Animal Behavior III: The Relationship Between Early Development and Evolutionary Persistence of Ground Squirrel Antisnake Behavior. ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY 1991. [DOI: 10.1207/s15326969eco0304_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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