Analysis of a long-term selection experiment with an exponential model

Developmental variability channels mouse molar evolution

Do developmental systems preferentially produce certain types of variation that orient phenotypic evolution along preferred directions? At different scales, from the intra-population to the interspecific, the murine first upper molar shows repeated anterior elongation. Using a novel quantitative approach to compare the development of two mouse strains with short or long molars, we identified temporal, spatial and functional differences in tooth signaling center activity, that arise from differential tuning of the activation-inhibition mechanisms underlying tooth patterning. By tracing their fate, we could explain why only the upper first molar reacts via elongation of its anterior part. Despite a lack of genetic variation, individuals of the elongated strain varied in tooth length and the temporal dynamics of their signaling centers, highlighting the intrinsic instability of the upper molar developmental system. Collectively, these results reveal the variational properties of murine molar development that drive morphological evolution along a line of least resistance.

Over time species develop random mutations in their genetic sequence that causes their form to change. If this new form increases the survival of a species it will become favored through natural selection and is more likely to get passed on to future generations. But, the evolution of these new traits also depends on what happens during development.

Developmental mechanisms control how an embryo progresses from a single cell to an adult organism made of many cells. Mutations that alter these processes can influence the physical outcome of development, and cause a new trait to form. This means that if many different mutations alter development in a similar way, this can lead to the same physical change, making it ‘easy’ for a new trait to repeatedly occur. Most of the research has focused on finding the mutations that underlie repeated evolution, but rarely on identifying the role of the underlying developmental mechanisms.

To bridge this gap, Hayden et al. investigated how changes during development influence the shape and size of molar teeth in mice. In some wild species of mice, the front part of the first upper molar is longer than in other species. This elongation, which is repeatedly found in mice from different islands, likely came from developmental mechanisms.

Tooth development in mice has been well-studied in the laboratory, and Hayden et al. started by identifying two strains of laboratory mice that mimic the teeth seen in their wild cousins, one with elongated upper first molars and another with short ones. Comparing how these two strains of mice developed their elongated or short teeth revealed key differences in the embryonic structures that form the upper molar and cause it to elongate. Further work showed that variations in these embryonic structures can even cause mice that are genetically identical to have longer or shorter upper first molars.

These findings show how early differences during development can lead to small variations in form between adult species of mice. This study highlights how studying developmental differences as well as genetic sequences can further our understanding of how different species evolved.

Thirty-four generations of divergent selection for 8-week body weight in chickens

Chickens of the Slovenian commercial Prelux-bro line were divergently selected over 34 generations for high and low BW at 8 wk of age. The aim of the study was to estimate responses to selection with a nonlinear model. Estimates of BW for each generation were provided by the mixed model. For fitting generation means against generation or cumulative selection differential, an exponential model was used. Estimates of realized heritability over generations were derived from regression of the response on cumulative selection differential. After 34 generations, the lines differed by approximately 2,220 g for males and 1,860 g for females. Estimates for a selection limit in the high line were 2,598.4 and 2,144.1 g, for males and females, respectively. A selection limit was not reached in the low line. Half of the selection response was obtained after approximately 6 to 8 generations in the high line and 20 to 28 generations in the low line. Estimated realized heritability decreased over generations. Heritability was larger for females than males and reduction of heritability was more rapid in the high line than in the low line. Genetic SD decreased over generations. Phenotypic SD increased over generations in the high line, but was constant in the low line in the initial 22 generations and decreased thereafter. According to the good fit of the nonlinear model and informative parameter estimates, the results confirmed the usefulness of the nonlinear model for analyzing responses to long-term selection.

Meta-analysis of the effects of dietary vitamin E supplementation on α-tocopherol concentration and lipid oxidation in pork

Meta-analyses have been carried out to quantify the effect of dietary vitamin E on α-tocopherol accumulation and on lipid oxidation in porcine M. longissimus. Published results of 13 (vitamin E accumulation) and 10 (lipid oxidation) experiments respectively were used for the analyses. After a number of standardization procedures, a nonlinear relationship was found between the supplementary vitamin E and the accumulation of α-tocopherol in pork which approached a maximum value of 6.4 μg/g tissue. Pork lipid oxidation levels were described in terms of Thiobarbituric Acid Reacting Substances (TBARS) values. The statistical analysis revealed significant effect of vitamin E dose, muscle α-tocopherol concentration and supplementation time on TBARS, resulting in two prediction models for lipid oxidation. Meta-analysis has proven to be a valuable tool for combining results from previous studies to quantify the effects of dietary vitamin E. Further studies, carried out with standardized experimental protocols would be beneficial for model validation and to increase the predictive power of the derived models.

A genetic investigation of various growth models to describe growth of lambs of two contrasting breeds1

This study compared the use of various models to describe growth in lambs of 2 contrasting breeds from birth to slaughter. Live BW records (n = 7559) from 240 Texel and 231 Scottish Blackface (SBF) lambs weighed at 2-wk intervals were modeled. Biologically relevant variables were estimated for each lamb from modified versions of the logistic, Gompertz, Richards, and exponential models, and from linear regression. In both breeds, all nonlinear models fitted the data well, with an average coefficient of determination (R2) of > 0.98. The linear model had a lower average R2 than any of the nonlinear models (< 0.94). The variables used to describe the best 3 models (logistic, Gompertz, and Richards) included estimated final BW (A); maximum ADG (B); age at maximum ADG (C); position of point of inflection in relation to A (D, for Richards only). The Richards and Gompertz models provided the best fit (average R2 = 0.986 to 0.989) in both breeds. Richards estimated an extra variable, allowing increased flexibility in describing individual growth patterns, but the Akaike's information criteria value (which weighs log-likelihood by number of parameters estimated) was similar to that of the Gompertz model. Variables A, B, C, and D were moderately to highly heritable in Texel lambs (h2 = 0.33 to 0.87), and genetic correlations between variables within-model ranged from -0.80 to 0.89, suggesting some flexibility to change the shape of the growth curve when selecting for different variables. In SBF lambs, only variables from the logistic and Gompertz models had moderate heritabilities (0.17 to 0.56), but with high genetic correlations between variables within each model (< -0.88 or > 0.92). Selection on growth variables seems promising (in Texel more than SBF), but high genetic correlations between variables may restrict the possibilities to change the growth curve shape. A random regression model was also fitted to the data to allow predictions of growth rates at relevant time points. Heritabilities for growth rates differed markedly at various stages of growth and between the 2 breeds (Texel: 0.14 to 0.74; SBF: 0.07 to 0.34), with negative correlations between growth rate at 60 d of age and growth rate at finishing. Following these results, future studies should investigate genetic relationships between relevant growth curve variables and other important production traits, such as carcass composition and meat quality.

Relationships between quantitative and reproductive fitness traits in animals

The relationships between quantitative and reproductive fitness traits in animals are of general biological importance for the development of population genetic models and our understanding of evolution, and of great direct economical importance in the breeding of farm animals. Two well investigated quantitative traits--body weight (BW) and litter size (LS)--were chosen as the focus of our review. The genetic relationships between them are reviewed in fishes and several mammalian species. We have focused especially on mice where data are most abundant. In mice, many individual genes influencing these traits have been identified, and numerous quantitative trait loci (QTL) located. The extensive data on both unselected and selected mouse populations, with some characterized for more than 100 generations, allow a thorough investigation of the dynamics of this relationship during the process of selection. Although there is a substantial positive genetic correlation between both traits in unselected populations, caused mainly by the high correlation between BW and ovulation rate, that correlation apparently declines during selection and therefore does not restrict a relatively independent development of both traits. The importance of these findings for overall reproductive fitness and its change during selection is discussed.