1
|
Szabó RT, Kovács-Weber M, Zimborán Á, Kovács L, Erdélyi M. Effects of Short- and Medium-Chain Fatty Acids on Production, Meat Quality, and Microbial Attributes-A Review. Molecules 2023; 28:4956. [PMID: 37446617 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28134956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The non-therapeutic use of antimicrobials in poultry production contributes to the spread of drug-resistant pathogens in both birds and humans. Antibiotics are known to enhance feed efficiency and promote the growth and weight gain of poultry. New regulatory requirements and consumer preferences have led to a reduced use of antibiotics in poultry production and to the discovery of natural alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. This interest is not only focused on the direct removal or inhibition of causative microorganisms but also on the prevention of diseases caused by enteric pathogens using a range of feed additives. A group of promising feed additives is composed of short- and medium-chain fatty acids (SCFAs and MCFAs) and their derivatives. MCFAs possess antibacterial, anticoccidial, and antiviral effects. In addition, it has been proven that these acids act in synergy if they are used together with organic acids, essential oils, or probiotics. These fatty acids also benefit intestinal health integrity and homeostasis in broilers. Other effects have been documented as well, such as an increase in intestinal angiogenesis and the gene expression of tight junctions. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of SCFAs and MCFAs as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters and to summarize the current findings in the literature to show their possible benefits on production, meat quality, and gut health in poultry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rubina Tünde Szabó
- Institute of Animal Husbandry, Gödöllő Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Mária Kovács-Weber
- Institute of Animal Husbandry, Gödöllő Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Zimborán
- Institute of Animal Husbandry, Gödöllő Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Levente Kovács
- Institute of Animal Husbandry, Gödöllő Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Márta Erdélyi
- Department of Feed Toxicology, Institute of Physiology and Nutrition, Gödöllő Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Peh E, Kittler S, Reich F, Kehrenberg C. Antimicrobial activity of organic acids against Campylobacter spp. and development of combinations-A synergistic effect? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239312. [PMID: 32941534 PMCID: PMC7497993 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Contaminated poultry meat is considered to be the main source of human infection with Campylobacter spp., a pathogen that asymptomatically colonizes broiler chickens during fattening and contaminates carcasses during slaughter. To prevent or reduce the colonization of broiler flocks with Campylobacter spp., applying different organic acids, especially in combinations, via feed or drinking water seems to be a promising approach. However, only very few combinations of organic acids have been tested for their antibacterial efficacy against Campylobacter spp. Therefore, the in vitro susceptibility of 30 Campylobacter spp. isolates (20 C. jejuni and ten C. coli) to ten organic acids and ten combinations was determined. The testing of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values was performed at pH 6.0 and 7.3 by using the broth microdilution method and included the following organic acids: Caprylic acid, sorbic acid, caproic acid, benzoic acid, ascorbic acid, propionic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, fumaric acid and tartaric acid and combinations thereof. The lowest MIC values were seen for caprylic acid (MIC range at pH 7.3: 0.5-2 mmol/L) and sorbic acid (MIC range at pH 7.3: 1-4 mmol/L). One to two dilution steps lower MIC values were determined at the lower pH value of 6.0. Furthermore, ten combinations consisting of three to five organic acids were developed. In addition to the tested antibacterial activity, other criteria were included such as approval as feed additives, reported synergistic effects and chemical properties. For nine of ten combinations, the MIC90 values of the organic acids decreased 1.25- to 241.5-fold compared to the MIC90 values for the individual substances. Furthermore, nine of ten combinations exhibited synergistic activities against two or more of the tested C. jejuni and C. coli isolates. A combination of caprylic acid, sorbic acid and caproic acid exhibited synergistic activities against the largest number of Campylobacter spp. isolates (six C. jejuni and four C. coli) with fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) indices (∑FIC) ranging from 0.33 to 1.42. This study shows in vitro synergistic activities of different organic acids in combinations against the major Campylobacter species and could therefore be a promising basis for reducing Campylobacter spp. in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Peh
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sophie Kittler
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Felix Reich
- Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, Germany
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Corinna Kehrenberg
- Institute for Veterinary Food Science, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Çenesiz AA, Çiftci İ. Modulatory effects of medium chain fatty acids in poultry nutrition and health. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2020.1739595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. A. Çenesiz
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - İ. Çiftci
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wales AD, Vidal AB, Davies RH, Rodgers JD. Field Interventions Against Colonization of Broilers by Campylobacter. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 18:167-188. [PMID: 33337018 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Poultry accounts for a high proportion of human campylobacteriosis cases, and the problem of Campylobacter colonization of broiler flocks has proven to be intractable. Owing to their broad host range and genetic instability, Campylobacter organisms are ubiquitous and adaptable in the broiler farm environment, colonizing birds heavily and spreading rapidly after introduction into a flock. This review examines strategies to prevent or suppress such colonization, with a heavy emphasis on field investigations. Attempts to exclude Campylobacter via enhanced biosecurity and hygiene measures have met with mixed success. Reasons for this are becoming better understood as investigations focus on houses, ventilation, biosecurity practices, external operators, and compliance, among other factors. It is evident that piecemeal approaches are likely to fail. Complementary measures include feed and drinking water treatments applied in either preventive or suppressive modes using agents including organic acids and their derivatives, also litter treatments, probiotics, prebiotics, and alterations to diet. Some treatments aim to reduce the number of Campylobacter organisms entering abattoirs by suppressing intestinal colonization just before slaughter; these include acid water treatment or administration of bacteriophages or bacteriocins. Experimental vaccines historically have had little success, but some recent subunit vaccines show promise. Overall, there is wide variation in the control achieved, and consistency and harmonization of trials is needed to enable robust evaluation. There is also some potential to breed for resistance to Campylobacter. Good and consistent control of flock colonization by Campylobacter may require an as-yet undetermined combination of excellent biosecurity plus complementary measures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Wales
- Dept. of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Univ. of Surrey, Vet School Main Building, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford, GU2 7AL, U.K
| | - Ana B Vidal
- Veterinary Medicines Directorate, Antimicrobial Resistance Policy and Surveillance Team, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3LS, U.K
| | - Robert H Davies
- Dept. of Bacteriology and Food Safety, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA - Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, U.K
| | - John D Rodgers
- Dept. of Bacteriology and Food Safety, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA-Weybridge), Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, Surrey, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Guyard-Nicodème M, Keita A, Quesne S, Amelot M, Poezevara T, Le Berre B, Sánchez J, Vesseur P, Martín Á, Medel P, Chemaly M. Efficacy of feed additives against Campylobacter in live broilers during the entire rearing period. Poult Sci 2016; 95:298-305. [DOI: 10.3382/ps/pev303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
6
|
The Role of Coated Sodium Butyrate on Performance of Broilers Fed High Protein and Reduced Energy Diets. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL NUTRITION 2016. [DOI: 10.1017/jan.2015.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
SummaryAddition of butyrate or its salt has been reported to have a positive impact on growth performance in broilers due to its bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties. This study investigated the effect of enterically coated dietary sodium butyrate (SB) on broiler performance. In experiment 1, 408 day-old male Ross 308 chicks were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Factors were dietary energy (standard or minus 50 kcal/kg relative to standard diet) and coated SB level (0 and 1 g/kg). In experiment 2, 2160 day-old male Cobb 500 birds were used in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial plus one arrangement of treatments. Factors included grain source (corn or wheat); protein level (standard or high); coated SB level (0 and 1 g/kg) plus a treatment using 2 kg SB in a high protein wheat-based diet. The results from the experiments showed no effect of coated SB on performance at 1 g/kg inclusion in feed across the ME range or across basal diet type (grain) or protein level (P > 0.05). However, birds fed the high protein wheat diet with 2 g/kg SB had higher body weights than the control birds at 10 and 24 days old. Birds fed high protein diets had lower body weight gain (WG) than those fed standard protein diets (P < 0.05), whereas birds fed corn based diets had higher WG than those fed wheat based diets (P < 0.05). Birds fed high dietary protein or wheat based diet showed decreased pH of caecal contents. The results indicated that dietary coated SB had no effect on broiler performance, the concentration of caecal and ileal short chain fatty acids (SCFA) or intestinal pH. Higher inclusion levels may play a beneficial role but this warrants further investigation.
Collapse
|
7
|
Thibodeau A, Fravalo P, Yergeau É, Arsenault J, Lahaye L, Letellier A. Chicken Caecal Microbiome Modifications Induced by Campylobacter jejuni Colonization and by a Non-Antibiotic Feed Additive. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131978. [PMID: 26161743 PMCID: PMC4498643 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter jejuni is an important zoonotic foodborne pathogen causing acute gastroenteritis in humans. Chickens are often colonized at very high numbers by C. jejuni, up to 10(9) CFU per gram of caecal content, with no detrimental effects on their health. Farm control strategies are being developed to lower the C. jejuni contamination of chicken food products in an effort to reduce human campylobacteriosis incidence. It is believed that intestinal microbiome composition may affect gut colonization by such undesirable bacteria but, although the chicken microbiome is being increasingly characterized, information is lacking on the factors affecting its modulation, especially by foodborne pathogens. This study monitored the effects of C. jejuni chicken caecal colonization on the chicken microbiome in healthy chickens. It also evaluated the capacity of a feed additive to affect caecal bacterial populations and to lower C. jejuni colonization. From day-0, chickens received or not a microencapsulated feed additive and were inoculated or not with C. jejuni at 14 days of age. Fresh caecal content was harvested at 35 days of age. The caecal microbiome was characterized by real time quantitative PCR and Ion Torrent sequencing. We observed that the feed additive lowered C. jejuni caecal count by 0.7 log (p<0.05). Alpha-diversity of the caecal microbiome was not affected by C. jejuni colonization or by the feed additive. C. jejuni colonization modified the caecal beta-diversity while the feed additive did not. We observed that C. jejuni colonization was associated with an increase of Bifidobacterium and affected Clostridia and Mollicutes relative abundances. The feed additive was associated with a lower Streptococcus relative abundance. The caecal microbiome remained relatively unchanged despite high C. jejuni colonization. The feed additive was efficient in lowering C. jejuni colonization while not disturbing the caecal microbiome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Thibodeau
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Meat-Safety (CRSV), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Swine and Avian Infectious Disease Research Centre (CRIPA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Groupe de recherche et d’enseignement en salubrité alimentaire (GRESA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- * E-mail: (AT); (AL)
| | - Philippe Fravalo
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Meat-Safety (CRSV), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Swine and Avian Infectious Disease Research Centre (CRIPA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Groupe de recherche et d’enseignement en salubrité alimentaire (GRESA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Étienne Yergeau
- National Research Council of Canada, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Julie Arsenault
- Swine and Avian Infectious Disease Research Centre (CRIPA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Groupe de recherche et d’enseignement en salubrité alimentaire (GRESA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Ann Letellier
- NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Meat-Safety (CRSV), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Swine and Avian Infectious Disease Research Centre (CRIPA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- Groupe de recherche et d’enseignement en salubrité alimentaire (GRESA), Université de Montréal, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
- * E-mail: (AT); (AL)
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hovorková P, Skřivanová E. Use of Caprylic Acid in Broiler Chickens: Effect on Campylobacter jejuni. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2015; 12:712-8. [PMID: 26114373 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2015.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The effect of caprylic acid (CA) on Campylobacter jejuni in chickens was evaluated using two approaches: dietary supplementation or surface treatment of chilled chicken carcasses. To analyze the dietary effect of CA, individually housed broiler chickens (n = 48) were artificially infected with C. jejuni VFU612 (10(6) colony-forming units [CFU]/bird) on the 21st and 35th days of life. Dietary CA (2.5 and 5 g/kg of feed, fed throughout the entire experiment) significantly decreased C. jejuni shedding (p<0.05). However, the effect only lasted for 3-7 days after infection. The numbers of Campylobacter shed by the positive control birds reached its maximum on the 37th day of life, while on that same day, both Treatment I and Treatment II groups shed significantly lower (p<0.05) numbers of Campylobacter (by 0.8 and 1.8 log10 CFU/g, respectively). Also, peak shedding was delayed by 1 day in both treated groups. After euthanasia of each chicken on the 42nd day of life, no differences in Campylobacter counts in the crop, gizzard, ileum, and cecum were found between the positive control and the treated groups (p>0.05). Surface contamination of the chilled chicken halves was performed with C. jejuni VFU612 (clinical isolate) and CCM6214 (collection strain). Surface treatment with CA at 1.25 and 2.5 mg/mL for 1 min significantly reduced C. jejuni VFU612 contamination of chicken skin (p<0.05) by 0.29-0.53 and 1.14-1.58 log10 CFU/g of skin, respectively. Counts of C. jejuni CCM6214 were reduced by 0.68-1.65 log10 CFU/g of skin). In conclusion, dietary CA affected numbers of C. jejuni in the gastrointestinal contents of chickens, whereas surface treatment reduced C. jejuni contamination in processed chicken carcasses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Petra Hovorková
- 1 Department of Physiology of Nutrition and Quality of Animal Products, Institute of Animal Science , Prague, Czech Republic .,2 Department of Microbiology, Nutrition, and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food, and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences , Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Skřivanová
- 1 Department of Physiology of Nutrition and Quality of Animal Products, Institute of Animal Science , Prague, Czech Republic .,2 Department of Microbiology, Nutrition, and Dietetics, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food, and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences , Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Robyn J, Rasschaert G, Pasmans F, Heyndrickx M. Thermotolerant Campylobacter during Broiler Rearing: Risk Factors and Intervention. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2015; 14:81-105. [PMID: 33401809 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Thermotolerant Campylobacters are one of the most important bacterial causative agents of human gastrointestinal illness worldwide. In most European Union (EU) member states human campylobacteriosis is mainly caused by infection with Campylobacter jejuni or Campylobacter coli following consumption or inadequate handling of Campylobacter-contaminated poultry meat. To date, no effective strategy to control Campylobacter colonization of broilers during rearing is available. In this review, we describe the public health problem posed by Campylobacter presence in broilers and list and critically review all currently known measures that have been researched to lower the numbers of Campylobacter bacteria in broilers during rearing. We also discuss the most promising measures and which measures should be investigated further. We end this review by elaborating on readily usable measures to lower Campylobacter introduction and Campylobacter numbers in a broiler flock.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joris Robyn
- the Inst. for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, Melle, Belgium
| | - Geertrui Rasschaert
- the Inst. for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, Melle, Belgium
| | - Frank Pasmans
- the Dept. of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent Univ, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Marc Heyndrickx
- the Inst. for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, Melle, Belgium.,the Dept. of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent Univ, Salisburylaan 133, Merelbeke, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Koolman L, Whyte P, Meade J, Lyng J, Bolton D. Use of chemical treatments applied alone and in combination to reduce Campylobacter on raw poultry. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
11
|
Grilli E, Vitari F, Domeneghini C, Palmonari A, Tosi G, Fantinati P, Massi P, Piva A. Development of a feed additive to reduce caecal Campylobacter jejuni
in broilers at slaughter age: from in vitro
to in vivo
, a proof of concept. J Appl Microbiol 2012; 114:308-17. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Revised: 10/11/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. Grilli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche Veterinarie; Università di Bologna; Ozzano Emilia Bologna Italy
| | - F. Vitari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la Salute, la Produzione Animale e la Sicurezza Alimentare; Università degli Studi di Milano; Milano Italy
| | - C. Domeneghini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie per la Salute, la Produzione Animale e la Sicurezza Alimentare; Università degli Studi di Milano; Milano Italy
| | - A. Palmonari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche Veterinarie; Università di Bologna; Ozzano Emilia Bologna Italy
| | - G. Tosi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico dell'Emilia Romagna; Forlì Italy
| | | | - P. Massi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico dell'Emilia Romagna; Forlì Italy
| | - A. Piva
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche Veterinarie; Università di Bologna; Ozzano Emilia Bologna Italy
- Vetagro SpA; Reggio Emilia Italy
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Hermans D, Martel A, Garmyn A, Verlinden M, Heyndrickx M, Gantois I, Haesebrouck F, Pasmans F. Application of medium-chain fatty acids in drinking water increases Campylobacter jejuni colonization threshold in broiler chicks. Poult Sci 2012; 91:1733-8. [DOI: 10.3382/ps.2011-02106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
|