Antioxidant properties of the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata and its antifungal activity against a large number of clinical Candida species

Transcriptome-wide analysis of PIP reductase gene family identified a phenylpropene synthase crucial for the biosynthesis of dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans in Schisandra chinensis

Phenylpropenes, such as isoeugenol and eugenol, are produced as defend compounds, floral attractants, and flavor constituents by phenylpropene synthases belonging to the PIP reductase family. Moreover, isoeugenol is proposed to be involved in the biosynthesis of dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans, the main active compounds of Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. fruits (SCF). S. chinensis, a woody vine plant, is widely used for its medicinal, horticultural, edible, and economic values. In this study, nine ScPIP genes were identified and characterized from the transcriptome datasets of SCF. The expression profiles revealed that ScPIP genes were differentially expressed during different developmental stages of SCF. Three ScPIPs were selected and cloned as candidate genes encoding phenylpropene synthases according to phylogenetic analysis. ScPIP1 was proved to function as isoeugenol synthase (IGS) and designated as ScIGS1 through in vivo functional characterization in Escherichia coli. Subcellular localization analysis demonstrated that ScIGS1 was localized in both the cytoplasm and nucleus. The three-dimensional (3D) model of ScIGS1 was obtained using homology modeling. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments revealed that the substitution of residues at positions 110 and 113 impacted the product specificity of ScIGS1 and the mutation of Lys157 to Ala abolishing catalytic function. Moreover, the kcat values of mutants were lower than that of ScIGS1 using a deep learning approach. In conclusion, this study provides a basis for further research on PIP reductases and the biosynthetic pathway of dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans.

Antimicrobial Activity of Syzygium aromaticum Essential Oil in Human Health Treatment

The use of natural compounds to prevent and treat infective diseases is increasing its importance, especially in the case of multidrug-resistant (MDR) microorganisms-mediated infections. The drug resistance phenomenon is today a global problem, so it is important to have available substances able to counteract MDR infections. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry (commonly called clove) is a spice characterized by several biological properties. Clove essential oil (EO) consists of numerous active molecules, being eugenol as the principal component; however, other compounds that synergize with each other are responsible for the biological properties of the EO. S. aromaticum is traditionally used for bowel and stomach disorders, cold and flu, oral hygiene, tooth decay, and for its analgesic action. Its EO has shown antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, neuro-protective, anti-stress, anticancer, and anti-nociceptive activities. This review aims to investigate the role of E. S. aromaticum EO in the counteraction of MDR microorganisms responsible for human disorders, diseases, or infections, such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Candida albicans, Giardia lamblia, Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. This study might orient clinical researchers on future therapeutic uses of S. aromaticum EO in the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases.

Chemical Composition of Litsea pungens Essential Oil and Its Potential Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities

Litsea pungens is a plant with medicinal and edible properties, where the fruits are edible and the leaves have medicinal properties. However, there is limited research on the chemical and pharmacological activities of the plant. In this study, essential oils were extracted by steam distillation and their antioxidant and antibacterial activities were further evaluated. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to identify the chemical components of L. pungens fresh fruit essential oil (FREO) and L. pungens fresh flower essential oil (FLEO), rapeseed oil (RO) and commercial Litsea oil (CEO). The results showed that 12 chemical components were identified in FREO. Twelve chemical components were identified from FLEO, four chemical components were identified from CEO, and thirteen chemical components were identified from RO. Except for RO, the other three oils were mainly composed of terpenes, among which limonene is the main chemical component. In terms of antioxidant activity, FREO, FLEO, CEO and RO have antioxidant capacity, mainly reflected in the scavenging DPPH free radicals and the iron ion chelating ability, and the antioxidant activity shows a certain dose effect, but the antioxidant activity of FLEO is the weakest among the four oils. Meanwhile, under the stress of hydrogen peroxide, CEO demonstrated a significant antioxidant protective effect on cells. It is worth mentioning that compared with the positive control, the FREO exhibited a better antibacterial rate. When the concentration of essential oil is 20 mg/mL, the bacteriostatic rate can reach 100%. Therefore, it could be a promising candidate among medicinal and edible plants.

Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils and Their Major Components in Scavenging Free Radicals, Inhibiting Lipid Oxidation and Reducing Cellular Oxidative Stress

Antioxidant activities of five essential oils (cinnamon, thyme, clove, lavender and peppermint oils) and their major components (eugenol, thymol, linalool, and menthol) were evaluated on scavenging DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl) free radicals, inhibiting polyunsaturated fatty acid oxidation in fish oil emulsion (FOE), and reducing oxidative stress in human red blood cells (RBC). The essential oils from cinnamon, thyme, clove and their main components, eugenol and thymol, exhibited the highest antioxidant activity in the FOE and RBC systems. It was found that the antioxidant activity of essential oils was positively correlated to the content of eugenol and thymol, while lavender and peppermint oils and their main components, linalool and menthol, had very low antioxidant activity. Compared with scavenging DPPH free radical activity, the antioxidant activity in FOE and RBC systems could better reflect the actual antioxidant potential of essential oil in preventing lipid oxidation and reducing oxidative stress in biological system.

In Vitro Antiviral Potential, Antioxidant, and Chemical Composition of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) Essential Oil

Viral infections are spread all around the world. Although there are available therapies, their safety and effectiveness are constrained by their adverse effects and drug resistance. Therefore, new natural antivirals have been used such as essential oils, which are natural products with promising biological activity. Accordingly, the present study aimed to identify the components of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) essential oil (EOCa) and verify its antioxidant and antiviral activity. The oil was analyzed using GC/MS, and the antioxidant capacity was evaluated as a function of the radical scavenging activity. A plaque reduction test was used to measure the antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and an adenovirus. GC/MS analysis confirmed the presence of eugenol as the main component (76.78%). Moreover, EOCa had powerful antioxidant activity with an IC50 of 50 µg/mL. The highest antiviral potential was found against HAV, with a selectivity index (SI) of 14.46, while showing poor selectivity toward HSV-1 with an SI value of 1.44. However, no relevant effect was detected against the adenovirus. The antiviral activity against HAV revealed that its effect was not related to host cytotoxicity. The findings imply that EOCa can be utilized to treat diseases caused by infections and free radicals.

Chemical Composition and Evaluation of Antifungal and Insecticidal Activities of Essential Oils Extracted from Jambosa caryophyllus (Thunb.) Nied: Clove Buds

Jambosa caryophyllus has been used in traditional phytotherapy as a treatment against infections. In the present work, essential oils extracted from clove buds (Jambosa caryophyllus ) (EO-JC) were investigated for their composition, antifungal, and insecticidal properties. Extraction of EO-JC was performed by use of hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus, and the EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Antifungal activity of EO-JC was evaluated by the use of solid-state diffusion (disc method) and microdilution to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), against three strains of fungus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Fusarium oxysporum. Insecticidal activity of EO-JC against the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus, was determined to assess utility of EO-JC to control this pest. Several exposures including inhalation and contact were used to determine lethality, as well as the repulsion test was conducted at concentrations of 4, 8, 16, and 32 μL EO-JC. Characterization of EO-JC by GC/MS revealed 34 compounds accounting for 99.98% of the mass of the extract. The predominant compound was eugenol (26.80%) followed by β-caryophyllene (16.03%) and eugenyl acetate (5.83%). The antifungal activity of EO-JC on solid media exhibited inhibitions in the range of 49% to 87%, and MIC was between 3.125 and 7.80 μg EO-JC/mL. Insecticidal activity, as determined by the use of the inhalation test, and expressed as the LD₅₀ and LD₉₅ after 96 hours of exposure was 2.32 and 21.92 μL/L air, respectively. In the contact test, a 96-hour exposure resulted in LD₅₀ and LD₉₅ of 5.51 and 11.05 μL/L of air, respectively. EO-JC exhibited insecticidal activity against fungi and pest chickpea weevil.

Eugenol: A novel therapeutic agent for the inhibition of Candida species infection

The high occurrence and mortality rates related to candidiasis emphasize the urgent need to introduce new therapeutic approaches to treat this infection. Eugenol, the main phenolic component of Clove and Cinnamomum essential oil, has been used to inhibit growth and different virulence factors of Candida, including strains with decreased susceptibility to antifungals, particularly fluconazole. The results showed that this compound could bind to Candida membrane and decrease ergosterol biosynthesis, consequently leading to cell wall and membrane damage. Additionally, eugenol not only reduced germ tube formation, which reduces nutrient absorption from host tissues, but it also increased the levels of lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species, which induces oxidative stress and causes high permeability in the fungal cell membrane. Eugenol inhibited Candida cells’ adhesion capacity; additionally, this compound inhibited the formation of biofilms and eliminated established Candida biofilms on a variety of surfaces. Furthermore, by disrupting fungal cell integrity, eugenol could boost the entry of the antifungal drugs into the Candida cell, improving treatment efficacy. Therefore, eugenol could be used in the clinical management of various presentations of candidiasis, especially mucocutaneous presentations such as oral and vulvovaginal infections. However, further investigations, including in vivo and animal studies, toxicology studies and clinical trials, as well as molecular analysis, are needed to improve formulations and develop novel antifungal agents based on eugenol.

Dissecting dietary and semisynthetic volatile phenylpropenes: A compile of their distribution, food properties, health effects, metabolism and toxicities

Phenylpropenes represent a major subclass of plant volatiles, including eugenol, and (E)-anethole. They contribute to the flavor and aroma of many chief herbs and spices, to exert distinct notes in food, i.e., spicy anise- and clove-like to fruit. Asides from their culinary use, they appear to exert general health effects, whereas some effects are specific, e.g., eugenol being a natural local anesthetic. This review represents the most comprehensive overview of phenylpropenes with respect to their chemical structures, different health effects, and their food applications as flavor and food preservatives. Side effects and toxicities of these compounds represent the second main part of this review, as some were reported for certain metabolites generated inside the body. Several metabolic reactions mediating for phenylpropenes metabolism in rodents via cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes are presented being involved in their toxicities. Such effects can be lessened by influencing their pharmacokinetics through a matrix-derived combination effect via administration of herbal extracts containing SULT inhibitors, i.e., nevadensin in sweet basil. Moreover, structural modification of phenylpropanes appears to improve their effects and broaden their applications. Hence, such review capitalizing on phenylpropenes can help optimize their applications in nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and food applications.

Multivariate assessment for predicting antioxidant activity from clove and pomegranate extracts by MCR-ALS and PLS models combined to IR spectroscopy

This study evaluated the feasibility of infrared (MIR/NIR) spectroscopy coupled to chemometrics as an alternative method for determining the antioxidant activity (AA%) of pomegranate (Punica granatum) and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) alcoholic extracts versus the conventional DPPH method. Multivariate curve resolution with alternating least squares (MCR-ALS) and Partial least squares (PLS) regression were efficient to predict the AA%, thus providing good accuracy and low residuals compared to the standard method. The MCR-ALS combined with NIR data stood out among the other models with R² ≥ 0.962 and RMSEP ≤ 3.38 %; furthermore, this technique presents the great feature of recovering the pure spectral profile of the analytes and identifying interferents in the sample. The application of chemometrics tools to predict the antioxidant activity of natural extracts resulted in a greener, low-cost and efficient process for the food industry.

Evaluation of the phytochemical content, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of Cocos nucifera liquid smoke, Garcinia mangostana pericarp, Syzygium aromaticum leaf, and Phyllanthus niruri L. extracts

Background and Aim:

Many plants contain bioactive substances with antibacterial and antifungal properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal activity of Cocos nucifera shell liquid smoke (CSL), clove leaf extract (CLE), and mangosteen pericarp extract (MPE) alone and in combination against Escherichia coli and Candida utilis. The antioxidant activity, phenol, saponin, and tannin of CSL, CLE, MPE, and Phyllanthus niruri L. extract were also measured.

Materials and Methods:

The agar well-diffusion method was used to determine the antimicrobial and antifungal activities of CSL, methanolic MPE, and CLE and their combination CSL+MPE+CLE (COMBI) on bacteria E. coli and fungus (C. utilis). Antioxidant activity was measured by the diphenylpicrylhydrazyl method. Total phenol and total tannin were measured by the Folin–Ciocalteu method and total saponin was measured by the vanillin-sulphate method.

Results:

The results indicated that phenolic and tannin levels were greater in MPE than in CLE, whereas the saponin content was higher in CLE compared with MPE. Undiluted (100%) MPE exhibited lower antibacterial activity (p<0.05) than chloramphenicol against E. coli, however, undiluted CLE and COMBI showed similar activity compared with chloramphenicol against E. coli. COMBI caused significantly (p<0.05) higher inhibition compared with virginiamycin against E. coli. CSL, MPE, and COMBI exhibited significantly lower antifungal activity (p<0.05) than that of ketoconazole against C. utilis. In contrast, CLE showed improved antifungal activity (p<0.05) compared with ketoconazole.

Conclusion:

Cocos nucifera liquid smoke, Garcinia mangostana pericarp extract, and Syzygium aromaticum leaf extract, either alone or in combination, have the potential to be used as antibacterial and antifungal agents.

Chemical Composition, In Vitro and In Situ Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities of Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) Essential Oil

The essential oil of Syzygium (S.) aromaticum (CEO) is known for its good biological activity. The aim of the research was to evaluate in vitro and in situ antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of the essential oil produced in Slovakia. The main components of CEO were eugenol 82.4% and (E)-caryophyllene 14.0%. The antimicrobial activity was either weak or very strong with inhibition zones ranging from 4.67 to 15.78 mm in gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and from 8.22 to 18.56 mm in yeasts and fungi. Among the tested bacteria and fungi, the lowest values of MIC were determined for Staphylococcus (S.) aureus and Penicillium (P.) expansum, respectively. The vapor phase of CEO inhibited the growth of the microscopic filamentous fungi of the genus Penicillium when tested in situ on bread. The strongest effect of mycelia inhibition in a bread model was observed against P. expansum at concentrations of 250 and 500 μL/mL. The best antimicrobial activity of CEO in the carrot model was found against P. chrysosenum. Differences between the mass spectra of Bacillus (B.) subtilis biofilms on the tested surfaces (wood, glass) and the control sample were noted from the seventh day of culture. There were some changes in mass spectra of Stenotrophomonas (S.) maltophilia, which were observed in both experimental groups from the fifth day of culture. These findings confirmed the impact of CEO on the protein structure of older biofilms. The findings indicate that, besides being safe and sensorially attractive, S. aromaticum has antimicrobial activity, which makes it a potential substitute for chemical food preservatives.

Ageratum conyzoides L. and Its Secondary Metabolites in the Management of Different Fungal Pathogens

Ageratum conyzoides L. (Family—Asteraceae) is an annual aromatic invasive herb, mainly distributed over the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It owns a reputed history of indigenous remedial uses, including as a wound dressing, an antimicrobial, and mouthwash as well as in treatment of dysentery, diarrhea, skin diseases, etc. In this review, the core idea is to present the antifungal potential of the selected medicinal plant and its secondary metabolites against different fungal pathogens. Additionally, toxicological studies (safety profile) conducted on the amazing plant A. conyzoides L. are discussed for the possible clinical development of this medicinal herb. Articles available from 2000 to 2020 were reviewed in detail to exhibit recent appraisals of the antifungal properties of A. conyzoides. Efforts were aimed at delivering evidences for the medicinal application of A. conyzoides by using globally recognized scientific search engines and databases so that an efficient approach for filling the lacunae in the research and development of antifungal drugs can be adopted. After analyzing the literature, it can be reported that the selected medicinal plant effectively suppressed the growth of numerous fungal species, such as Aspergillus, Alternaria, Candida, Fusarium, Phytophthora, and Pythium, owing to the presence of various secondary metabolites, particularly chromenes, terpenoids, flavonoids and coumarins. The possible mechanism of action of different secondary metabolites of the plant against fungal pathogens is also discussed briefly. However, it was found that only a few studies have been performed to demonstrate the plant’s dosage and safety profile in humans. Considered all together, A. conyzoides extract and its constituents may act as a promising biosource for the development of effective antifungal formulations for clinical use. However, in order to establish safety and efficacy, additional scientific research is required to explore chronic toxicological effects of ageratum, to determine the probability of interactions when used with different herbs, and to identify safe dosage. The particulars presented here not only bridge this gap but also furnish future research strategies for the investigators in microbiology, ethno-pharmacology, and drug discovery.

Elucidation of antifungal and aflatoxin B1 inhibitory mode of action of Eugenia caryophyllata L. essential oil loaded chitosan nanomatrix against Aspergillus flavus

The present study investigated the novel antifungal, and anti-aflatoxin B₁ mechanism of Eugenia caryophyllata L. essential oil (ECEO) loaded chitosan nanomatrix against the toxigenic strain of A. flavus (AFLV-DK-02). Phytochemical profiling of ECEO was done by GC-MS which revealed eugenol (73.6%) as the primary bioactive compound. ECEO was encapsulated inside the chitosan nanomatrix (ECEO-Np) and characterized using SEM, AFM, FTIR and XRD analysis. The ECEO-Np exhibited enhance antifungal (0.25 μL/mL) and anti-aflatoxin B₁ inhibitory activity (0.15 μL/mL) than ECEO. Antifungal and antiaflatoxin B₁ inhibitory activity was found to be related with impairment in the biological functioning of the plasma membrane (ergosterol synthesis, leakage of membrane ions, UV light (260, 280 nm) absorbing material, dead cell by propidium iodide assay, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), methylglyoxal and inhibition in essential carbon substrate utilization). ECEO-Np exhibited remarkable free radical scavenging activity with IC₅₀ value of 0.002 μL/mL. ECEO-Np effectively preserves the sensory characteristics of exposed maize crop seed up to six months of storage and shows considerable safety profile (non-toxic, non-mutagenic, non-hepatotoxic, non-carcinogenic, non-tumorigenic and biodegradable) using computational ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) analysis.

Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antimycotoxigenic, and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils: An Updated Review

The interest in using natural antimicrobials instead of chemical preservatives in food products has been increasing in recent years. In regard to this, essential oils-natural and liquid secondary plant metabolites-are gaining importance for their use in the protection of foods, since they are accepted as safe and healthy. Although research studies indicate that the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of essential oils (EOs) are more common compared to other biological activities, specific concerns have led scientists to investigate the areas that are still in need of research. To the best of our knowledge, there is no review paper in which antifungal and especially antimycotoxigenic effects are compiled. Further, the low stability of essential oils under environmental conditions such as temperature and light has forced scientists to develop and use recent approaches such as encapsulation, coating, use in edible films, etc. This review provides an overview of the current literature on essential oils mainly on antifungal and antimycotoxigenic but also their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Additionally, the recent applications of EOs including encapsulation, edible coatings, and active packaging are outlined.

Development, characterization and photobiological activity of nanoemulsion containing zinc phthalocyanine for oral infections treatment

Nanotechnology, when applied to PDT's, allows the encapsulation of ZnPc in nanocarriers, producing thus nanoemulsions that permit the use of ZnPc as photosensitizers. The Enterococcus faecalis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are microorganisms present in biofilms which can cause resistant endodontic infections. The objective of this work is the development and characterization of clove essential oil nanoemulsions containing ZnPc. The formulations were developed according to factorial experimental planning and characterized by the determination of the mean drop size, Polydispersity Index (PdI), content, organoleptic characteristics, stability, morphology, cytotoxicity in the dark and evaluation of the photobiological activity. The experimental planning was able to indicate the maximum amount of ZnPc that could be encapsulated in the nanoemulsion while maintaining droplet size <50 nm and PdI < 0.2. The surface plots for the response variables indicated a robust region for the combination of Pluronic® F-127 and clove oil factors. The result of this study was the choice of the nanoemulsion containing ZnPc solution at 5%, clove oil at 5%, Pluronic® F-127 at 10% and will be codified as ZnPc-NE. The nanoemulsion presented a mean diameter of 30.52 nm, PDI < 0.2 and a concentration of 17.5 μg/mL, as well as stability at room temperature for 180 days. TEM showed that the drops are spherical with nanometric size, which corroborates the results of dynamic light scattering. Concerning the photobiological activity, the ZnPc-NE exhibited MIC 1.09 μg/mL for Enterococcus faecalis and 0.065 μg/mL for MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). ZnPc-NE showed higher photobiological activity than free ZnPc. Besides, cytotoxicity studies showed that blank-NE (nanoemulsions without PS) showed good antimicrobial activity. Thus, clove oil nanoemulsion is an excellent nanocarrier to promote the photobiological activity of the ZnPc against pathogenic microorganisms.

Odoriferous Therapy: A Review Identifying Essential Oils against Pathogens of the Respiratory Tract

This review explores the body of scientific information available on the antimicrobial properties of essential oils against pathogens responsible for respiratory infections and critically compares this to what is recommended in the Layman's aroma-therapeutic literature. Essential oils are predominantly indicated for the treatment of respiratory infections caused by bacteria or viruses (total 79.0 %), the efficacy of which has not been confirmed through clinical trials. When used in combination, they are often blended for presumed holistic synergistic effects. Of the essential oils recommended, all show some degree of antioxidant activity, 50.0 % demonstrate anti-inflammatory effects and 83.3 % of the essential oils showed antihistaminic activity. Of the essential oils reviewed, 43.8 % are considered non-toxic while the remaining essential oils are considered slightly to moderately toxic (43.7 %) or the toxicity is unknown (12.5 %). Recommendations are made for further research into essential oil combinations.

A comparative evaluation of pain perception following topical application of benzocaine gel, clove-papaya based anesthetic gel and precooling of the injection site before intraoral injections in children

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE STUDY

The topical anesthetic property of clove remains unexplored even though it has been widely used in dentistry since ages. Hence, the aim of the study was to compare the topical anesthetic efficiency of precooling with ice, clove-papaya based topical gel and benzocaine gel in pediatric patients.

METHODOLOGY

Sixty healthy children aged 9-10 years who required local anesthetic injections for dental procedures were selected and divided into three groups with 20 patients each. In the first visit, written consent and intraoral screening of the patients were performed. In the second visit, the topical anesthetic agents were applied in the respective groups for 1 min and later local anesthetic injections were administered. Pain perception was evaluated using Sound, Eye, Motor Scale (SEM scale) and Wong Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale (WBFPRS), tabulated, and statistically analyzed. A.

RESULTS

The test results demonstrated that benzocaine group has the highest mean WBFPRS score followed by clove-papaya group and then ice cone group. The ice group showed the least mean SEM scale score, followed by the benzocaine group and then clove-papaya group. However, the mean WBFPRS score and the mean SEM scale score did not show any statistically significant difference.

INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSION

All the three topical anesthetic agents provided similar surface anesthesia in children. The newly introduced clove-papaya based topical anesthetic gel showed encouraging results, hence can be used as a potent topical anesthetic agent.

Comparison of antiplaque effectiveness of herbal toothpaste: A randomized triple-blinded cross-over clinical trial

Background

Cleansing the teeth with a toothbrush and paste is an indubitable mechanical plaque control method practiced by almost everyone. Eliminating dental plaque is an essential, fundamental and mandatory step to prevent the occurrence of periodontal diseases that are rife globally. The aim of the present study is to compare the antiplaque effectiveness of a prepared herbal and commercially available dentifrice.

Materials and Methods

Thirty healthy individuals within the age group of 18-25 years were recruited to participate in the study. After achieving induced gingivitis and measuring plaque levels using Turesky modification of the Quigley Hein Plaque index in all the subjects, they were randomly divided into test arms A and B. Commercial dentifrice was distributed to one group, whereas the other group received prepared herbal dentifrice. Supervised brushing was carried out for 5 min, and plaque amounts after brushing were noted. After a washout period of 1 week, the same steps were repeated as per the cross-over study protocol. Unpaired t-test and paired t-tests were employed with P < 0.05.

Results

Both the toothpastes show the difference in plaque scores immediately after brushing when compared to baseline and was statistically significant (P = 0.001). The mean plaque scores of commercial dentifrice (1.93 ± 1.52) were less than that of the prepared herbal dentifrice (2.35 ± 1.39) after brushing.

Conclusion

The prepared herbal dentifrice had good antiplaque action. However, the plaque inhibitory action of self-prepared herbal toothpaste was marginally less when compared to commercial dentifrice.

Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with clove essential oil: Characterization, antioxidant and antibacterial activities

One of the recent trends in the food industry is application of natural antioxidant/antimicrobial agents. In this study, essential oil of clove buds was extracted and encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles using a two-step technique of emulsion-ionic gelation. A good retention rate (55.8-73.4 %) of clove essential oil (CEO) loaded in chitosan nanoparticles was confirmed. Also, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses revealed the success of CEO encapsulation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images illustrated regular distribution and spherical shape of nanoparticles with a size range of 223-444 nm. The antioxidant activity of CEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles was higher than free CEO. Similarly, CEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles had a high antibacterial activity against L. monocytogenes and S. aureus (inhibition halo diameter of 4.80-4.78 cm). This technique could improve the efficiency of CEO in food products and a delivery system for novel applications such as active packaging.

In vitro anticandidal potency of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) extracts against vaginal candidiasis

Background

Candida vaginitis is a global health hazard that increases morbidity among women of childbearing age. Recent studies have revealed a high incidence of drug-resistant Candida strains. Additionally, treating Candida vulvovaginitis during pregnancy is challenging as antifungal therapy is associated with fetal abnormalities. Hence, it is important to develop novel therapeutic strategies to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis.

Methods

In this study, we used the disc diffusion method to evaluate the anticandidal activity of different Syzygium aromaticum extracts (methanol, ethyl acetate, n-hexane, and diethyl ether) against C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis. Furthermore, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of different S. aromaticum extracts was performed to determine active components exhibiting anticandidal activity. Cytotoxicity of different clove extracts against the HUH7 cell line was evaluated.

Results

The ethyl acetate extract exhibited the highest antifungal activity against C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis with inhibition zone diameters of 20.9, 14.9, and 30.7 mm, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the S. aromaticum ethyl acetate extract was 250 μg/disc against C. tropicalis, and 500 μg/disc against C. albicans and C. glabrata, while the minimum fungicidal concentration was 0.5 mg/disc against C. tropicalis and 1 mg/disc against the C. albicans and C. glabrata. GC-MS analysis of the ethyl acetate extract revealed the main bioactive compound as eugenol (58.88%), followed by eugenyl acetate (23.86%), trans-caryophyllene (14.44%), and α-humulene (1.88%). The cytotoxicity assay indicated that the diethyl ether extract demonstrated the lowest toxicological effect against the HUH7 cell line, with a relative IC₅₀ of 62.43 μg/ml; the methanolic extract demonstrated a higher toxicity (IC₅₀, 24.17 μg/ml).

Conclusion

As the S. aromaticum extract exhibited high antifungal activity at low concentrations, it can be a potential source of natural antifungal drugs.

Syzygium aromaticum L. (Myrtaceae): Traditional Uses, Bioactive Chemical Constituents, Pharmacological and Toxicological Activities

Herbal medicinal products have been documented as a significant source for discovering new pharmaceutical molecules that have been used to treat serious diseases. Many plant species have been reported to have pharmacological activities attributable to their phytoconstituents such are glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenes, etc. Syzygium aromaticum (clove) is a traditional spice that has been used for food preservation and possesses various pharmacological activities. S. aromaticum is rich in many phytochemicals as follows: sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, hydrocarbon, and phenolic compounds. Eugenyl acetate, eugenol, and β-caryophyllene are the most significant phytochemicals in clove oil. Pharmacologically, S. aromaticum has been examined toward various pathogenic parasites and microorganisms, including pathogenic bacteria, Plasmodium, Babesia, Theileria parasites, Herpes simplex, and hepatitis C viruses. Several reports documented the analgesic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiseptic, anti-depressant, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial activity of eugenol against several pathogenic bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcusepidermidis and S. aureus. Moreover, eugenol was found to protect against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity and showed a potential lethal efficacy against the multiplication of various parasites including Giardia lamblia, Fasciolagigantica, Haemonchuscontortus, and Schistosomamansoni. This review examines the phytochemical composition and biological activities of clove extracts along with clove essential oil and the main active compound, eugenol, and implicates new findings from gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis.

Clove oil nanoemulsion showed potent inhibitory effect against Candida spp

Increasing resistance to current fungicides is a clinical problem that leads to the need for new treatment strategies. Clove oil (CO) has already been described as having antifungal action. However, it should not be applied directly to the skin as it may be irritating. One option for CO delivery and suitable topical application would be nanoemulsions (NEs). NEs have advantages such as decreased irritant effects and lower dose use. The purpose of this work was the development of NEs containing CO and in vitro evaluation against Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. The NEs were produced by an ultrasonic processor with different proportions of CO and Pluronic^® F-127. In order to determine the best composition and ultrasound amplitude, an experimental design was performed. For the evaluation, droplet size and polydispersity index (PdI) were used. After the stability study, in vitro activity against C. albicans and C. glabrata was evaluated. NEs selected for the stability study, with diameter <40 nm and PdI <0.2, remained stable for 420 d. Activity against Candida spp. was improved when the CO was nanoemulsified, for it possibly leads to a better interaction between the active and the microorganisms, mainly in C. albicans.

Eugenol diffusion coefficient and its potential to control Sitophilus zeamais in rice

Given the insecticidal potential of eugenol as a fumigant, this work aimed to determine the diffusion coefficient of eugenol emanating from a pure standard solution (99%), as well as from clove essential oil (Eugenia caryophillata Thunb. (Myrtaceae)) through rice grain; to chemically analyse the volatile composition of commercially available eugenol and clove essential oil; and to evaluate the mortality of Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: curculionidae) after exposure to eugenol inside a test chamber filled with rice. The solid phase microextraction method of extracting and quantifying eugenol by gas chromatography presented a good analytical response for the quantification of the analyte. There was no significant difference between the diffusion coefficient of eugenol diffusing from pure eugenol or from clove essential oil. The diffusion coefficient of eugenol through rice with the conditions herein adopted is 1.09 × 10-3 cm2 s-1. The characterization of clove essential oil confirmed the presence of eugenol as its major component (74.25%). A difference was observed in the composition of the distinct phases evaluated. The exposure of adult S. zeamais to diffused eugenol from pure eugenol over seven days resulted in significantly higher mortality rates (~37%) than eugenol diffused from clove essential oil (~11%). No differences in mortality rates were observed in individuals placed at different positions inside the test chamber during eugenol fumigation.

Composition, antioxidant capacity and cytotoxic activity of Eugenia uniflora L. chemotype-oils from the Amazon

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Oils and extracts of Eugenia uniflora have been reported as antimicrobial, antifungal, antinociceptive, antiprotozoal, antioxidant and cytotoxic.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The oils of five specimens (E1 to E5) that occur in the Brazilian Amazon were extracted, analyzed for their chemical composition, and submitted to antioxidant and cytotoxic assays.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Oils were hydrodistilled, analyzed by GC and GC-MS, and submitted to PCA and HCA analyses. The antioxidant activity of the oils was evaluated by the DPPH radical scavenging and the β-carotene/linoleic acid assays. Antiproliferative effects of the oils and curzerene were tested against colon (HCT-116), gastric (AGP-01), and melanoma (SKMEL-19) human cancer cell lines and a normal human fibroblast cell line (MRC-5), using MTT assay.

RESULTS

Oxygenated sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as curzerene, selina-1,3,7(11)-trien-2-one, selina-1,3,7(11)-trien-2-one epoxide, germacrene B, caryophyllene oxide, and (E)-caryophyllene were predominant in the oils. PCA and HCA analyses classified the oils samples into four chemotypes. TEAC values of chemotype II (E3 oil, 228.3 ± 19.2 mg TE/mL) and chemotype III (E4 oil, 217.0 ± 23.3 mg TE/mL) displayed significant antioxidant activities. The oils E2 and E4 showed cytotoxic activity against all cell lines tested HCT-116 (IC₅₀ E2:16.26 μg/mL; IC₅₀ E4:9.28 μg/mL), AGP-01, (IC₅₀ E2:12.60 μg/mL; IC₅₀ E4:8.73 μg/mL), SKMEL-19 (IC₅₀ E2:12.20 μg/mL; IC₅₀ E4:15.42 μg/mL), and MRC-5 (IC₅₀ E2:10.27 μg/mL; IC₅₀ E4:14.95 μg/mL). Curzerene showed the more significant activity against melanoma cells (SKMEL-19, IC₅₀:5.17 μM), induced apoptosis at 5.0 μM and 10.0 μM compared to DMSO, exhibiting a decrease in the cell migration at 5.0 μM and 10.0 μM, after 30 h of treatment.

CONCLUSION

The curzerene chemotype oil and E. uniflora oils can be indicated as drug candidates for anticancer activity of the lung, colon, stomach, and melanoma, with a real prospect to their subsequent phytotherapeutic development.

Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles with volatile oil of Eugenia caryophyllata for enhanced antimicrobial activities

Different chemo-physical methods are used to synthesise titanium oxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs), which are often expensive, unfriendly to the environment, toxic, not biocompatible, with a small yield. To resolve these problems, the researchers use green procedures to synthesise TiO₂-NPs by plant extracts of Capsicum annum L. and Allium cepa (onion) and characterise using atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electronic microscopy, X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet (UV)-visible (Vis) spectra and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results indicate that most NPs synthesised by the first and second procedures of onion had an average diameter of 95.7 and 89.1 nm, while NPs synthesised by C. annum had an average diameter of 103.60 and 90.07 nm, respectively. In UV-Vis spectra, strong absorption was below 470 nm, and energy gap was 3.3 eV in each of the first procedure of A. cepa and the second procedure of C. annum compared with 270 nm, 6.3 eV for each of the second procedure of A. cepa and the first procedure of C. annum. The antimicrobial activities of NPs were evaluated and an attempt was made to enhance these activities by Eugenia caryophyllata plant's oil in combination therapies. There were synergistic effects between NPs and plant's oil.

Phenylpropenes: Occurrence, Distribution, and Biosynthesis in Fruit

Phenylpropenes such as eugenol, chavicol, estragole, and anethole contribute to the flavor and aroma of a number of important herbs and spices. They have been shown to function as floral attractants for pollinators and to have antifungal and antimicrobial activities. Phenylpropenes are also detected as free volatiles and sequestered glycosides in a range of economically important fresh fruit species including apple, strawberry, tomato, and grape. Although they contribute a relatively small percentage of total volatiles compared with esters, aldehydes, and alcohols, phenylpropenes have been shown to contribute spicy anise- and clove-like notes to fruit. Phenylpropenes are typically found in fruit throughout development and to reach maximum concentrations in ripe fruit. Genes involved in the biosynthesis of phenylpropenes have been characterized and manipulated in strawberry and apple, which has validated the importance of these compounds to fruit aroma and may help elucidate other functions for phenylpropenes in fruit.

Extract of Syringa oblata: A new biocontrol agent against tobacco bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum

Ralstonia solanacearum causes serious wilt disease in tobacco. To effectively control this disease, the antibacterial activity of 95% ethanol extracts from the flower buds of Syringa oblata was examined. Based on GC-MS analysis and an inhibition experiment against R. solanacearum, the main antibacterial component is eugenol. We further determined the effect of eugenol on the physiology, biochemistry, and cellular morphology of R. solanacearum. The results showed that eugenol can destroy wilt bacteria, leading to the disappearance of flagella, the leakage of contents, and the appearance of a cavity. SDS-PAGE showed that eugenol decreased protein content in R. solanacearum, reduced medium carbohydrate utilization, and inhibited CAT and SDH activity. The above results showed that eugenol had a significant inhibitory effect on R. solanacearum and this component has the potential to prevent tobacco bacterial wilt.

Syzygium aromaticum water extract attenuates ethanol‑induced gastric injury through antioxidant effects in rats

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether Syzygium aromaticum water extract (SAWE) has a protective effect against ethanol‑induced gastric injury in rats. Acute gastric injury was induced via intragastric administration of absolute ethanol at a dose of 5 ml/kg. SAWE (250 or 500 mg/kg/day) or cimetidine (100 mg/kg/day), which was used as a positive control, were administered to the rats 2 h prior to ethanol administration for 3 days. All rats were sacrificed 24 h following the final ethanol administration. To examine whether SAWE has a gastroprotective effect, assays were performed to assess the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH), the activities of catalase, glutathione‑S‑transferase and superoxide dismutase, and an immune-linked immunosorbent assay was performed for prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production in gastric tissues by hematoxylin and eosin and periodic acid-Schiff staining. Histological assessment of the gastric wall was performed. Compared with ethanol treatment alone, treatment with SAWE at a dose of 250 mg/kg/day significantly decreased the gastric MDA content and increased the GSH content, catalase activity, and production of gastric PGE2. Histological assessment showed that SAWE attenuated inflammatory cell infiltration and the loss of epithelial cells. These findings suggested that SAWE protected against ethanol‑induced gastric mucosal injury in the rats. These effects appeared to be associated with antioxidant activity, activation of the production of PGE2, suppression of inflammatory cell infiltration and loss of epithelial cells in the gastric mucosa. Collectively, SAWE may be beneficial in the prevention of gastric disease associated to oxidative stress.

Essential oils, their therapeutic properties, and implication in dentistry: A review

Background:

Antibacterial treatments currently used for treatment cause several side effects, and bacterial resistance to the antibiotics is also increasing. Therefore, there is need to find better alternatives. Essential oils (EOs) have been used for treatment of various ailments since ancient times and have gained popularity over the years. Safety and efficacy of EOs have been proved by several clinical trials. This review gives an overview on the EOs, their uses, and adverse effects.

Materials and Methods:

A literature search was performed in the PubMed for clinical trial studies and review articles on EOs published up to February 2015. The search was performed during March 2015. The following keywords were used: “Lavender essential oil,” “cinnamon oil,” “clove oil,” “eucalyptus oil,” “peppermint oil,” “lemon EOs,” and “tea tree oil.”

Results:

Total 70 relevant articles were found in PubMed database. After screening of abstracts, 52 articles were selected to be included in the present review.

Conclusion:

On the basis of the available information, it can be concluded that EOs have the potential to be developed as preventive or therapeutic agents for various oral diseases, but further clinical trials are required to establish their safety and efficacy.

Essential Oils for Treatment for Onychomycosis: A Mini-Review

Onychomycosis are fungal infections affecting finger and toenails mainly caused by dermatophyte fungi and some Candida species. Low cure rates and frequent recurrence, development of a fungal resistance front to various antimicrobial agents topical and systemic, and an ineffective topical treatment make onychomycosis difficult to treat. Essential oils are excellent candidates for the topical treatment for onychomycosis because the development of resistance by fungi is rare, and the presence of side effects is low. They are composed of a complex variety of compounds, mainly terpenes, with low molecular weight, which may easily penetrate into the nail plate, finding the fungi elements. The complex mixture confers a broad antifungal spectrum of action, through interaction with biological membranes, interference in radical and enzymatic reaction of fungi cells. Essential oils may become the source of new therapeutic molecules, and the use of an essential oil incorporated into a topical formulation is an interesting, safe, and effective alternative for the treatment for onychomycosis. However, studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of essential oils in the treatment for onychomycosis in vivo. This mini-review aims to present the potential use of essential oils for the treatment for onychomycosis, focusing on the last decade.

Experimental evaluation of anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and antipyretic activities of clove oil in mice

BACKGROUND

Clove oil of Eugenia caryophyllata (Myrtaceae) is a light yellowish fluid obtained from dried flower buds. Clove oil is used traditionally to relieve toothache.

AIM

The aim of the present work was to study the anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and antipyretic potential of clove oil in mice.

METHODS

Analgesic activity was examined using acetic-acid-induced abdominal constrictions and the hot plate test. Carrageenan-induced paw edema and brewer's-yeast-induced pyrexia were used to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity and the antipyretic effects, respectively. The oil was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) at a dose of 33 mg/kg body weight and the effects were compared with reference drugs.

RESULTS

In the antinociceptive test, mice treated with clove oil exhibited significantly decreased acetic-acid-induced writhing movements by a maximum of 87.7% (p<0.01) compared with a decrease of 77.7% (p<0.01) in response to aspirin injection (100 mg/kg, intraperitoneal, i.p.). Similarly, in the hot plate test, clove oil significantly increased the reaction latency to pain after 60 min by 82.3% (p<0.05) compared with morphine value of 91.7% (p<0.01). In addition, clove oil and indomethacin produced anti-inflammatory effects, as demonstrated by respectively 50.6% (p<0.05) and 70.4% (p<0.01) inhibition of mouse paw edema induced by carrageenan. Furthermore, clove oil significantly attenuated the hyperthermia induced by yeast at ΔT-max by 2.7°C (p<0.001), and time of peak effects was 30-180 min compared with a paracetamol value ΔT-max of 3.2°C (p<0.001). The estimated i.p. LD50 of clove oil was 161.9 mg/kg. Phytochemical screening of the oil showed the presence of eugenol.

CONCLUSION

The present findings demonstrate the potential pharmacological properties of clove oil and provide further a support for its reported use in folk medicine.

Commercial Origanum compactum Benth. and Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume essential oils against natural mycoflora in Valencia rice

Chemical composition of commercial Origanum compactum and Cinnamomum zeylanicum essential oils and the antifungal activity against pathogenic fungi isolated from Mediterranean rice grains have been investigated. Sixty-one compounds accounting for more than 99.5% of the total essential oil were identified by using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Carvacrol (43.26%), thymol (21.64%) and their biogenetic precursors p-cymene (13.95%) and γ-terpinene (11.28%) were the main compounds in oregano essential oil, while the phenylpropanoids, eugenol (62.75%), eugenol acetate (16.36%) and (E)-cinnamyl acetate (6.65%) were found in cinnamon essential oil. Both essential oils at 300 μg/mL showed antifungal activity against all tested strains. O. compactum essential oil showed the best antifungal activity towards Fusarium species and Bipolaris oryzae with a total inhibition of the mycelial growth. In inoculated rice grains at lower doses (100 and 200 μg/mL) significantly reduced the fungal infection, so O. compactum essential oil could be used as ecofriendly preservative for field and stored Valencia rice.

Early state research on antifungal natural products

Nosocomial infections caused by fungi have increased greatly in recent years, mainly due to the rising number of immunocompromised patients. However, the available antifungal therapeutic arsenal is limited, and the development of new drugs has been slow. Therefore, the search for alternative drugs with low resistance rates and fewer side effects remains a major challenge. Plants produce a variety of medicinal components that can inhibit pathogen growth. Studies of plant species have been conducted to evaluate the characteristics of natural drug products, including their sustainability, affordability, and antimicrobial activity. A considerable number of studies of medicinal plants and alternative compounds, such as secondary metabolites, phenolic compounds, essential oils and extracts, have been performed. Thus, this review discusses the history of the antifungal arsenal, surveys natural products with potential antifungal activity, discusses strategies to develop derivatives of natural products, and presents perspectives on the development of novel antifungal drug candidates.

Simultaneous Determination of Gallic Acid, Ellagic Acid, and Eugenol in Syzygium aromaticum and Verification of Chemical Antagonistic Effect by the Combination with Curcuma aromatica Using Regression Analysis

This study was designed to perform simultaneous determination of three reference compounds in Syzygium aromaticum (SA), gallic acid, ellagic acid, and eugenol, and to investigate the chemical antagonistic effect when combining Curcuma aromatica (CA) with SA, based on chromatographic analysis. The values of LODs and LOQs were 0.01-0.11  μ g/mL and 0.03-0.36  μ g/mL, respectively. The intraday and interday precisions were <3.0 of RSD values, and the recovery was in the range of 92.19-103.24%, with RSD values <3.0%. Repeatability and stability were 0.38-0.73% and 0.49-2.24%, respectively. Compared with the content of reference and relative peaks in SA and SA combined with CA (SAC), the amounts of gallic acid and eugenol were increased, while that of ellagic acid was decreased in SAC (compared with SA), and most of peak areas in SA were reduced in SAC. Regression analysis of the relative peak areas between SA and SAC showed r (2) values >0.87, indicating a linear relationship between SA and SAC. These results demonstrate that the components contained in CA could affect the extraction of components of SA mainly in a decreasing manner. The antagonistic effect of CA on SA was verified by chemical analysis.

Structure-activity relationships of eugenol derivatives against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae

BACKGROUND

Dengue fever is a severe public health problem for several countries. In order to find effective larvicides to aid control programs, the structure-activity relationships of eugenol derivatives against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae were evaluated. Additionally, the composition and larvicidal activity of Syzygium aromaticum essential oil was assessed.

RESULTS

Four compounds representing 99.05% of S. aromaticum essential oil have been identified. The essential oil was active against Ae. aegypti larvae (LC(50) = 62.3 and 77.0 ppm, field-collected and Rockefeller larvae respectively). The larvicidal activity of eugenol, the major compound of the essential oil, was further evaluated (LC(50) = 93.3 and 71.9 ppm, field-collected and Rockefeller larvae respectively). The larvicidal activity and structure-activity relationships of synthetic derivatives of eugenol were also assessed. The larvicidal activity of the derivatives varied between 62.3 and 1614.9 ppm. Oxidation of eugenol allylic bond to a primary alcohol and removal of the phenolic proton resulted in decreased potency. However, oxidation of the same double bond in 1-benzoate-2-methoxy-4-(2-propen-1-yl)-phenol resulted in increased potency.

CONCLUSION

Structural characteristics were identified that may contribute to the understanding of the larvicidal activity of phenylpropanoids. The present approach may help future work in the search for larvicidal compounds.

Neuroprotective effect of SuHeXiang Wan in Drosophila models of Alzheimer's disease

AIM OF THE STUDY

SuHeXiang Wan (SHXW) is a Chinese traditional medicinal prescription that consists of 15 crude herbs. SHXW has been used to treat central nervous depression, seizures, infantile convulsion and stroke, and its essential oil has been shown to have anticonvulsant and antioxidative activity. The goal of this study was to investigate the beneficial effects of SHXW on the neurological phenotypes of Drosophila AD models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We evaluated the effects of a modified SHXW (called KSOP1009) intake on the AD-like phenotypes of Drosophila AD models, which express human Aβ42 in their developing eyes or neurons.

RESULTS

When the flies were kept on the media containing 5 μg/ml of KSOP1009 extract, Aβ42-induced eye degeneration, apoptosis, and the locomotive dysfunctions were strongly suppressed. However, Aβ42 fibril deposits in the Aβ42 overexpressing model were not affected by treatment with KSOP1009 extract. Conversely, KSOP1009 extract intake significantly suppressed the constitutive active form of hemipterous, a JNK activator, while it induced eye degeneration and JNK activation, which has been recognized as an important mediator of Aβ42-associated neuro-cytotoxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that KSOP1009 confers a therapeutic potential to AD-like pathology of Aβ42 overexpressing Drosophila model via suppression of the hyperactivation of JNK activity and apoptosis.