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Heers H, Gut JM, Hofmann R, Flegar L, Derigs M, Huber J, Baumbach JI, Koczulla AR, Boeselt T. Pilot study for bladder cancer detection with volatile organic compounds using ion mobility spectrometry: a novel urine-based approach. World J Urol 2024; 42:353. [PMID: 38795133 PMCID: PMC11127872 DOI: 10.1007/s00345-024-05047-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/27/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Despite many efforts, no reliable urinary marker system has so far shown the potential to substitute cystoscopy. Measuring volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from urine is a promising alternative. VOCs are metabolic products which can be measured from the headspace of urine samples. Previous studies confirmed that the urine of bladder tumor patients has a different VOC profile than healthy controls. In this pilot study, the feasibility of discriminating VOCs from urine of bladder cancer patients from that of healthy control subjects was investigated. Aim of this study was to investigate whether VOC-based diagnosis of bladder cancer from urine samples is feasible using multicapillary column ion mobility spectrometry (MCC/IMS) and to identify potential molecular correlates to the relevant analytes. METHODS Headspace measurements of urine samples of 30 patients with confirmed transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) and 30 healthy controls were performed using MCC/IMS. In the results of the measurements, peaks showing significant differences between both groups were identified and implemented into a decision tree with respect to achieve group separation. Molecular correlates were predicted using a pre-defined dataset. RESULTS Eight peaks with significantly differing intensity were identified, 5 of which were highly significant. Using a six-step decision tree, MCC/IMS showed a sensitivity of 90% and specificity of 100% in group separation. CONCLUSION VOC-based detection of bladder cancer is feasible. MCC/IMS is a suitable method for urine-based diagnosis and should be further validated. The molecular characteristics and metabolic background of the analytes require further workup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Heers
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany.
| | - Josef Maximilian Gut
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, München Klinik Neuperlach, Oskar-Maria-Graf-Ring 51, 81737, Munich, Germany
| | - Rainer Hofmann
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
| | - Luka Flegar
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
| | - Marcus Derigs
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Huber
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
| | - Joerg Ingo Baumbach
- Department Bio- and Chemical Engineering, Technical University Dortmund, Emil-Figge-Straße 66, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Andreas Rembert Koczulla
- Department of Pulmonology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Pulmonology, Schön-Klinik Berchtesgadener Land, Malterhöh 1, 83471, Schönau, Germany
| | - Tobias Boeselt
- Department of Pulmonology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Baldingerstraße, 35033, Marburg, Germany
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Heers H, Chwilka O, Huber J, Vogelmeier C, Koczulla AR, Baumbach JI, Boeselt T. VOC-based detection of prostate cancer using an electronic nose and ion mobility spectrometry: A novel urine-based approach. Prostate 2024. [PMID: 38497426 DOI: 10.1002/pros.24692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many diseases leave behind specific metabolites which can be detected from breath and urine as volatile organic compounds (VOC). Our group previously described VOC-based methods for the detection of bladder cancer and urinary tract infections. This study investigated whether prostate cancer can be diagnosed from VOCs in urine headspace. METHODS For this pilot study, mid-stream urine samples were collected from 56 patients with histologically confirmed prostate cancer. A control group was formed with 53 healthy male volunteers matched for age who had recently undergone a negative screening by prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and digital rectal exam. Headspace measurements were performed with the electronic nose Cyranose 320TM . Statistical comparison was performed using principal component analysis, calculating Mahalanobis distance, and linear discriminant analysis. Further measurements were carried out with ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) to compare detection accuracy and to identify potential individual analytes. Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple testing. RESULTS The electronic nose yielded a sensitivity of 77% and specificity of 62%. Mahalanobis distance was 0.964, which is indicative of limited group separation. IMS identified a total of 38 individual analytical peaks, two of which showed significant differences between groups (p < 0.05). To discriminate between tumor and controls, a decision tree with nine steps was generated. This model led to a sensitivity of 98% and specificity of 100%. CONCLUSIONS VOC-based detection of prostate cancer seems feasible in principle. While the first results with an electronic nose show some limitations, the approach can compete with other urine-based marker systems. However, it seems less reliable than PSA testing. IMS is more accurate than the electronic nose with promising sensitivity and specificity, which warrants further research. The individual relevant metabolites identified by IMS should further be characterized using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to facilitate potential targeted rapid testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Heers
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Chwilka
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Huber
- Department of Urology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Claus Vogelmeier
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Rembert Koczulla
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Pulmonology, Schoen-Kliniken, Berchtesgaden, Germany
| | - Jörg Ingo Baumbach
- Department of Biochemical and Chemical Engineering, Technical University of Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Tobias Boeselt
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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Baudrexler T, Boeselt T, Li L, Bohlscheid S, Boas U, Schmid C, Rank A, Schmohl J, Koczulla R, Schmetzer HM. Volatile Phases Derived from Serum, DC, or MLC Culture Supernatants to Deduce a VOC-Based Diagnostic Profiling Strategy for Leukemic Diseases. Biomolecules 2023; 13:989. [PMID: 37371569 DOI: 10.3390/biom13060989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) reflect the metabolism in healthy and pathological conditions, and can be collected easily in a noninvasive manner. They are directly measured using electronical nose (eNose), and may qualify as a systemic tool to monitor biomarkers related to disease. Myeloid leukemic blasts can be transformed into leukemia-derived dendritic cells (DCleu) able to improve (anti-leukemic) immune responses. To profile immunological changes in healthy and acute myeloid leukemic (AML) patients' ex vivo cell cultures, we correlated the cell biological data with the profiles of cell culture supernatant-derived VOCs. DC/DCleu from leukemic or healthy whole blood (WB) were generated without (Control) or with immunomodulatory Kit M (Granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating-factor (GM-CSF) + prostaglandin E1 (PGE1)) in dendritic cell cultures (DC culture). Kit-pretreated/not pretreated WB was used to stimulate T cell-enriched immunoreactive cells in mixed lymphocyte cultures (MLC culture). Leukemia-specific adaptive and innate immune cells were detected with a degranulation assay (Deg) and an intracellular cytokine assay (InCyt). Anti-leukemic cytotoxicity was explored with a cytotoxicity fluorolysis assay (CTX). VOCs collected from serum or DC- and MLC culture supernatants (with vs. without Kit M pretreatment and before vs. after culture) were measured using eNose. Compared to the Control (without treatment), Kit M-pretreated leukemic and healthy WB gave rise to higher frequencies of mature (leukemia-derived) DC subtypes of activated and (memory) T cells after MLC. Moreover, antigen (leukemia)-specific cells of several lines (innate and adaptive immunity cells) were induced, giving rise to blast-lysing cells. The eNose could significantly distinguish between healthy and leukemic patients' serum, DC and MLC culture supernatant-derived volatile phases and could significantly separate several supernatant (with vs. without Kit M treatment, cultured vs. uncultured)-derived VOCs within subgroups (healthy DC or leukemic DC, or healthy MLC or leukemic MLC supernatants). Interestingly, the eNose could indicate a Kit M- and culture-associated effect. The eNose may be a prospective option for the deduction of a VOC-based profiling strategy using serum or cell culture supernatants and could be a useful diagnostic tool to recognize or qualify AML disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Baudrexler
- Medical Department III, Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Boeselt
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Phillipps-University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Lin Li
- Medical Department III, Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Sophia Bohlscheid
- Medical Department III, Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ursel Boas
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Phillipps-University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmid
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Rank
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Augsburg, 86156 Augsburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Schmohl
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Diaconia Hospital Stuttgart, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Rembert Koczulla
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Phillipps-University of Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Helga Maria Schmetzer
- Medical Department III, Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 81377 Munich, Germany
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Sharma A, Kumar R, Varadwaj P. Smelling the Disease: Diagnostic Potential of Breath Analysis. Mol Diagn Ther 2023; 27:321-347. [PMID: 36729362 PMCID: PMC9893210 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-023-00640-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Breath analysis is a relatively recent field of research with much promise in scientific and clinical studies. Breath contains endogenously produced volatile organic components (VOCs) resulting from metabolites of ingested precursors, gut and air-passage bacteria, environmental contacts, etc. Numerous recent studies have suggested changes in breath composition during the course of many diseases, and breath analysis may lead to the diagnosis of such diseases. Therefore, it is important to identify the disease-specific variations in the concentration of breath to diagnose the diseases. In this review, we explore methods that are used to detect VOCs in laboratory settings, VOC constituents in exhaled air and other body fluids (e.g., sweat, saliva, skin, urine, blood, fecal matter, vaginal secretions, etc.), VOC identification in various diseases, and recently developed electronic (E)-nose-based sensors to detect VOCs. Identifying such VOCs and applying them as disease-specific biomarkers to obtain accurate, reproducible, and fast disease diagnosis could serve as an alternative to traditional invasive diagnosis methods. However, the success of VOC-based identification of diseases is limited to laboratory settings. Large-scale clinical data are warranted for establishing the robustness of disease diagnosis. Also, to identify specific VOCs associated with illness states, extensive clinical trials must be performed using both analytical instruments and electronic noses equipped with stable and precise sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anju Sharma
- Systems Biology Lab, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rajnish Kumar
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Pritish Varadwaj
- Systems Biology Lab, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Virmani T, Kumar G, Virmani R, Sharma A, Pathak K. Nanocarrier-based approaches to combat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2022; 17:1833-1854. [PMID: 35856251 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2021-0403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormalities in airway mucus lead to chronic disorders in the pulmonary system such as asthma, fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Among these, COPD is more prominent worldwide. Various conventional approaches are available in the market for the treatment of COPD, but the delivery of drugs to the target site remains a challenge with conventional approaches. Nanocarrier-based approaches are considered the best due to their sustained release properties to the target site, smaller size, high surface-to-volume ratio, patient compliance, overcoming airway defenses and improved pharmacotherapy. This article provides updated information about the treatment of COPD along with nanocarrier-based approaches as well as the potential of gene therapy and stem cell therapy to combat the COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarun Virmani
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MVN University, Haryana, 121102, India
| | - Girish Kumar
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MVN University, Haryana, 121102, India
| | - Reshu Virmani
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MVN University, Haryana, 121102, India
| | - Ashwani Sharma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, MVN University, Haryana, 121102, India
| | - Kamla Pathak
- Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, 206001, India
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Ratiu IA, Mametov R, Ligor T, Buszewski B. Micro-Chamber/Thermal Extractor (µ-CTE) as a new sampling system for VOCs emitted by feces. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18780. [PMID: 34548581 PMCID: PMC8455535 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98279-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
VOCs (volatile organic compounds) are increasingly wished to be used in diagnosis of diseases. They present strategic advantages, when compared to classical methods used, such as simplicity and current availability of performant non-invasive sample collection methods/systems. However, standardized sampling methods are required in order to achieve reproducible results. In the current study we developed a method to be used for feces sampling using a Micro-Chamber/Thermal Extractor (µ-CTE). Design Expert software (with Box-Behnken design) was used to predict the solutions. Therefore, by using the simulation experimental plan that was further experimentally verified, extraction time of 19.6 min, at extraction temperature of 30.6 °C by using a flow rate of 48.7 mL/min provided the higher response. The developed method was validated by using correlation tests and Network analysis, which both proved the validity of the developed model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Andreea Ratiu
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies - BioSep, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
- "Raluca Ripan" Institute for Research in Chemistry, Babes-Bolyai University, 30 Fantanele, 400239, Cluj Napoca, Romania.
| | - Radik Mametov
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies - BioSep, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
| | - Tomasz Ligor
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies - BioSep, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
| | - Bogusław Buszewski
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Modern Technologies - BioSep, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Wileńska 4, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarina 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
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van der Sar IG, Wijbenga N, Nakshbandi G, Aerts JGJV, Manintveld OC, Wijsenbeek MS, Hellemons ME, Moor CC. The smell of lung disease: a review of the current status of electronic nose technology. Respir Res 2021; 22:246. [PMID: 34535144 PMCID: PMC8448171 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-021-01835-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a need for timely, accurate diagnosis, and personalised management in lung diseases. Exhaled breath reflects inflammatory and metabolic processes in the human body, especially in the lungs. The analysis of exhaled breath using electronic nose (eNose) technology has gained increasing attention in the past years. This technique has great potential to be used in clinical practice as a real-time non-invasive diagnostic tool, and for monitoring disease course and therapeutic effects. To date, multiple eNoses have been developed and evaluated in clinical studies across a wide spectrum of lung diseases, mainly for diagnostic purposes. Heterogeneity in study design, analysis techniques, and differences between eNose devices currently hamper generalization and comparison of study results. Moreover, many pilot studies have been performed, while validation and implementation studies are scarce. These studies are needed before implementation in clinical practice can be realised. This review summarises the technical aspects of available eNose devices and the available evidence for clinical application of eNose technology in different lung diseases. Furthermore, recommendations for future research to pave the way for clinical implementation of eNose technology are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G van der Sar
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - N Wijbenga
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - G Nakshbandi
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J G J V Aerts
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - O C Manintveld
- Department of Cardiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M S Wijsenbeek
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M E Hellemons
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - C C Moor
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Ibrahim W, Natarajan S, Wilde M, Cordell R, Monks PS, Greening N, Brightling CE, Evans R, Siddiqui S. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of volatile organic compounds in airway diseases and their relation to markers of type-2 inflammation. ERJ Open Res 2021; 7:00030-2021. [PMID: 34476250 PMCID: PMC8405872 DOI: 10.1183/23120541.00030-2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asthma and COPD continue to cause considerable diagnostic and treatment stratification challenges. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been proposed as feasible diagnostic and monitoring biomarkers in airway diseases. AIMS To 1) conduct a systematic review evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of VOCs in diagnosing airway diseases; 2) understand the relationship between reported VOCs and biomarkers of type-2 inflammation; 3) assess the standardisation of reporting according to STARD and TRIPOD criteria; 4) review current methods of breath sampling and analysis. METHODS A PRISMA-oriented systematic search was conducted (January 1997 to December 2020). Search terms included: "asthma", "volatile organic compound(s)", "VOC" and "COPD". Two independent reviewers examined the extracted titles against review objectives. RESULTS 44 full-text papers were included; 40/44 studies were cross-sectional and four studies were interventional in design; 17/44 studies used sensor-array technologies (e.g. eNose). Cross-study comparison was not possible across identified studies due to the heterogeneity in design. The commonest airway diseases differentiating VOCs belonged to carbonyl-containing classes (i.e. aldehydes, esters and ketones) and hydrocarbons (i.e. alkanes and alkenes). Although individual markers that are associated with clinical biomarkers of type-2 inflammation were recognised (i.e. ethane and 3,7-dimethylnonane for asthma and α-methylstyrene and decane for COPD), these were not consistently identified across studies. Only 3/44 reported following STARD or TRIPOD criteria for diagnostic accuracy and multivariate reporting, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Breath VOCs show promise as diagnostic biomarkers of airway diseases and for type-2 inflammation profiling. However, future studies should focus on transparent reporting of diagnostic accuracy and multivariate models and continue to focus on chemical identification of volatile metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wadah Ibrahim
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Sushiladevi Natarajan
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Michael Wilde
- Dept of Chemistry, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | | | - Paul S. Monks
- Dept of Chemistry, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Neil Greening
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Christopher E. Brightling
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Rachael Evans
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Salman Siddiqui
- Leicester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (Respiratory Theme), Glenfield Hospital, Leicester, UK
- Dept of Respiratory Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- See Acknowledgements for contributors
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McNulty MJ, Silberstein DZ, Kuhn BT, Padgett HS, Nandi S, McDonald KA, Cross CE. Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency and recombinant protein sources with focus on plant sources: Updates, challenges and perspectives. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 163:10-30. [PMID: 33279618 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (A1ATD) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by low plasma levels of A1AT, a serine protease inhibitor representing the most abundant circulating antiprotease normally present at plasma levels of 1-2 g/L. The dominant clinical manifestations include predispositions to early onset emphysema due to protease/antiprotease imbalance in distal lung parenchyma and liver disease largely due to unsecreted polymerized accumulations of misfolded mutant A1AT within the endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes. Since 1987, the only FDA licensed specific therapy for the emphysema component has been infusions of A1AT purified from pooled human plasma at the 2020 cost of up to US $200,000/year with the risk of intermittent shortages. In the past three decades various, potentially less expensive, recombinant forms of human A1AT have reached early stages of development, one of which is just reaching the stage of human clinical trials. The focus of this review is to update strategies for the treatment of the pulmonary component of A1ATD with some focus on perspectives for therapeutic production and regulatory approval of a recombinant product from plants. We review other competitive technologies for treating the lung disease manifestations of A1ATD, highlight strategies for the generation of data potentially helpful for securing FDA Investigational New Drug (IND) approval and present challenges in the selection of clinical trial strategies required for FDA licensing of a New Drug Approval (NDA) for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J McNulty
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - David Z Silberstein
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Brooks T Kuhn
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; University of California, Davis, Alpha-1 Deficiency Clinic, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | | | - Somen Nandi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Global HealthShare Initiative®, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Karen A McDonald
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Global HealthShare Initiative®, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Carroll E Cross
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; University of California, Davis, Alpha-1 Deficiency Clinic, Sacramento, CA, USA; Department of Physiology and Membrane Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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Mule NM, Patil DD, Kaur M. A comprehensive survey on investigation techniques of exhaled breath (EB) for diagnosis of diseases in human body. INFORMATICS IN MEDICINE UNLOCKED 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imu.2021.100715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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11
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Volatile Organic Compounds in Exhaled Breath as Fingerprints of Lung Cancer, Asthma and COPD. J Clin Med 2020; 10:jcm10010032. [PMID: 33374433 PMCID: PMC7796324 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma are inflammatory diseases that have risen worldwide, posing a major public health issue, encompassing not only physical and psychological morbidity and mortality, but also incurring significant societal costs. The leading cause of death worldwide by cancer is that of the lung, which, in large part, is a result of the disease often not being detected until a late stage. Although COPD and asthma are conditions with considerably lower mortality, they are extremely distressful to people and involve high healthcare overheads. Moreover, for these diseases, diagnostic methods are not only costly but are also invasive, thereby adding to people’s stress. It has been appreciated for many decades that the analysis of trace volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath could potentially provide cheaper, rapid, and non-invasive screening procedures to diagnose and monitor the above diseases of the lung. However, after decades of research associated with breath biomarker discovery, no breath VOC tests are clinically available. Reasons for this include the little consensus as to which breath volatiles (or pattern of volatiles) can be used to discriminate people with lung diseases, and our limited understanding of the biological origin of the identified VOCs. Lung disease diagnosis using breath VOCs is challenging. Nevertheless, the numerous studies of breath volatiles and lung disease provide guidance as to what volatiles need further investigation for use in differential diagnosis, highlight the urgent need for non-invasive clinical breath tests, illustrate the way forward for future studies, and provide significant guidance to achieve the goal of developing non-invasive diagnostic tests for lung disease. This review provides an overview of these issues from evaluating key studies that have been undertaken in the years 2010–2019, in order to present objective and comprehensive updated information that presents the progress that has been made in this field. The potential of this approach is highlighted, while strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats are discussed. This review will be of interest to chemists, biologists, medical doctors and researchers involved in the development of analytical instruments for breath diagnosis.
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The Role of Electronic Noses in Phenotyping Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2020; 10:bios10110171. [PMID: 33187142 PMCID: PMC7697924 DOI: 10.3390/bios10110171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common progressive disorder of the respiratory system which is currently the third leading cause of death worldwide. Exhaled breath analysis is a non-invasive method to study lung diseases, and electronic noses have been extensively used in breath research. Studies with electronic noses have proved that the pattern of exhaled volatile organic compounds is different in COPD. More recent investigations have reported that electronic noses could potentially distinguish different endotypes (i.e., neutrophilic vs. eosinophilic) and are able to detect microorganisms in the airways responsible for exacerbations. This article will review the published literature on electronic noses and COPD and help in identifying methodological, physiological, and disease-related factors which could affect the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Strnad
- From the Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH (Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule) Aachen, Aachen, Germany (P.S.); the Irish Centre for Genetic Lung Disease, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin (N.G.M.); and UCL Respiratory, Division of Medicine, Rayne Institute, University College London, London (D.A.L.)
| | - Noel G McElvaney
- From the Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH (Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule) Aachen, Aachen, Germany (P.S.); the Irish Centre for Genetic Lung Disease, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin (N.G.M.); and UCL Respiratory, Division of Medicine, Rayne Institute, University College London, London (D.A.L.)
| | - David A Lomas
- From the Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH (Rheinisch-Westfälisch Technische Hochschule) Aachen, Aachen, Germany (P.S.); the Irish Centre for Genetic Lung Disease, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin (N.G.M.); and UCL Respiratory, Division of Medicine, Rayne Institute, University College London, London (D.A.L.)
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Biehl W, Hattesohl A, Jörres RA, Duell T, Althöhn U, Koczulla AR, Schmetzer H. VOC pattern recognition of lung cancer: a comparative evaluation of different dog- and eNose-based strategies using different sampling materials. Acta Oncol 2019; 58:1216-1224. [PMID: 31311375 DOI: 10.1080/0284186x.2019.1634284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Background: It has been reported that canine scent tests offer the possibility to screen for cancer. Assuming that breath samples can be collected with carrier materials, we tested the practicability of different carrier materials to be presented to dogs and validated and compared results with an electronic nose (eNose). Moreover, we hypothesized that cancer detection ability of dogs differs according to their working experience. Methods: In a methodological approach, two dog teams participated, one using experienced working dogs and the other ordinary household dogs to find the most qualified dogs and training method. To find best carrier material for breath sampling we compared charcoal containing glass tubes and fleece masks. In a second validating part, experienced working dogs were trained with improved training strategies. For breath sampling, two different, previously successfully tested fleece-based carrier materials were used: one was used with the dog team and both materials were compared with eNose. Results: In the methodological approach, it turned out that the charcoal-based sampling strategy qualified not sufficiently for VOC-detection. Moreover, we could determine that using experienced working dogs provided several advantages. Overall results of dogs in the validating part regarding specificity were 83%, regarding sensitivity 56%, but with great variability among dogs. Using eNose for breath analysis collected with both fleece carrier materials, specificity was 97% and sensitivity 89-100%. Conclusion: Our data confirmed that the diagnostic accuracy of dogs depended on the type of dog training and on the carrier materials. A comparison of breath samples analysis with an eNose achieved better results for both, sensitivity and specificity than for dogs. The use of fleece masks or fleeces in glass tubes as a sampling material can be recommended as successful VOC carriers, encouraging their use for clinical screenings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Biehl
- Medical Department III, University Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Akira Hattesohl
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Philipps-University of Marburg, German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Marburg, Germany
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Schoen Klinik Berchtesgadener Land, Schoenau am Koenigssee, Germany
| | - Rudolf A. Jörres
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, University Hospital, Munich, LMU, Germany
| | - Thomas Duell
- Department for Oncology, Asklepios Lungenfachkliniken Muenich-Gauting, Germany
| | - Ulrike Althöhn
- Evidensia Tierärztliche Klinik für Kleintiere Norderstedt GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany
| | - Andreas Rembert Koczulla
- Department of Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Philipps-University of Marburg, German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Marburg, Germany
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonary Rehabilitation, Schoen Klinik Berchtesgadener Land, Schoenau am Koenigssee, Germany
| | - Helga Schmetzer
- Medical Department III, University Hospital Großhadern, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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Campanella A, De Summa S, Tommasi S. Exhaled breath condensate biomarkers for lung cancer. J Breath Res 2019; 13:044002. [PMID: 31282387 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/ab2f9f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the main cause of cancer incidence and mortality worldwide and the identification of clinically useful biomarkers for lung cancer detection at both early and metastatic stage is a pressing medical need. Although many improvements have been made in the treatment and in the early screening of this cancer, most diagnosis are made at a late stage, when a lot of genetic and epigenetic changes have occurred. A promising source of biomarkers reflective of the pathogenesis of lung cancer is exhaled breath condensate (EBC), a biological fluid and a natural matrix of the respiratory tract. Molecules such as DNAs, RNAs, proteins, metabolites and volatile compounds are present in EBC, and their presence/absence or their variation in concentrations can be used as biomarkers. The aims of this review are to briefly describe exhaled breath composition, firstly, and then to document some of the EBC candidate biomarkers for lung cancer by dividing them according to their origin (genome, transcriptome, epigenome, metabolome, proteome and microbiota) in order to demonstrate the potential use of EBC as a helpful tool in cancer diagnostics, molecular profiling, therapy monitoring and screening of high risk individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Campanella
- Pharmacogenetics and Molecular Diagnostic Unit, IRCCS Istituto Tumori 'Giovanni Paolo II', Bari, Italy
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The electronic nose technology in clinical diagnosis: A systematic review. Porto Biomed J 2019; 4:e42. [PMID: 31930178 PMCID: PMC6924976 DOI: 10.1097/j.pbj.0000000000000042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text Background: Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are end products of human metabolism (normal and disease-associated) that can be mainly excreted in breath, urine, and feces. Therefore, VOC can be very useful as markers of diseases and helpful for clinicians since its sampling is noninvasive, inexpensive, and painless. Electronic noses, or eNoses, provide an easy and inexpensive way to analyze gas samples. Thus, this device may be used for diagnosis, monitoring or phenotyping diseases according to specific breathprints (breath profile). Objective: In this review, we summarize data showing the ability of eNose to be used as a noninvasive tool to improve diagnosis in clinical settings. Methods: A PRISMA-oriented search was performed in PubMed and Cochrane Library. Only studies performed in humans and published since 2000 were included. Results: A total of 48 original articles, 21 reviews, and 7 other documents were eligible and fully analyzed. The quality assessment of the selected studies was conducted according to the Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy. Airway obstructive diseases were the most studied and Cyranose 320 was the most used eNose. Conclusions: Several case–control studies were performed to test this technology in diverse fields. More than a half of the selected studies showed good accuracy. However, there are some limitations regarding sampling methodology, analysis, reproducibility, and external validation that need to be standardized. Additionally, it is urgent to test this technology in intend-to-treat populations. Thus, it is possible to think in the contribution of VOC analysis by eNoses in a clinical setting.
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Hashoul D, Haick H. Sensors for detecting pulmonary diseases from exhaled breath. Eur Respir Rev 2019; 28:28/152/190011. [PMID: 31243097 PMCID: PMC9489036 DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0011-2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This review presents and discusses a new frontier for fast, risk-free and potentially inexpensive diagnostics of respiratory diseases by detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in exhaled breath. One part of the review is a didactic presentation of the overlaying concept and the chemistry of exhaled breath. The other part discusses diverse sensors that have been developed and used for the detection of respiratory diseases (e.g. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, lung cancer, pulmonary arterial hypertension, tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis, obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome and pneumoconiosis) by analysis of VOCs in exhaled breath. The strengths and pitfalls are discussed and criticised, particularly in the perspective in disseminating information regarding these advances. Ideas regarding the improvement of sensors, sensor arrays, sensing devices and the further planning of workflow are also discussed. Detection of volatile organic compounds from exhaled breath by nanomaterial-based sensors is a new diagnostics frontier in the screening of pulmonary diseases.http://bit.ly/2JoBKXn
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Hashoul
- Dept of Chemical Engineering, Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, and the Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Haifa, Israel
| | - Hossam Haick
- Dept of Chemical Engineering, Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, and the Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Haifa, Israel
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Saktiawati AMI, Stienstra Y, Subronto YW, Rintiswati N, Sumardi, Gerritsen JW, Oord H, Akkerman OW, van der Werf TS. Sensitivity and specificity of an electronic nose in diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis among patients with suspected tuberculosis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0217963. [PMID: 31194793 PMCID: PMC6563983 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the potency of a hand-held point-of-care electronic-nose to diagnose pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) among those suspected of PTB. METHODS Setting: Lung clinics and Dr. Sardjito Hospital, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Participants: patients with suspected PTB and healthy controls. Sampling: 5 minutes exhaled breath. Sputum-smear-microscopy, culture, chest-radiography, and follow-up for 1.5-2.5 years, were used to classify patients with suspected PTB as active PTB, probably active PTB, probably no PTB, and no PTB. After building a breath model based on active PTB, no PTB, and healthy controls (Calibration phase), we validated the model in all patients with suspected PTB (Validation phase). In each variable (sex, age, Body Mass Index, co-morbidities, smoking status, consumption of alcohol, use of antibiotics, flu symptoms, stress, food and drink intake), one stratum's Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC)-curve indicating sensitivity and specificity of the breath test was compared with another stratum's ROC-curve. Differences between Area-under-the-Curve between strata (p<0.05) indicated an association between the variable and sensitivity-specificity of the breath test. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA/SE 15. RESULTS Of 400 enrolled participants, 73 were excluded due to extra-pulmonary TB, incomplete data, previous TB, and cancer. Calibration phase involved 182 subjects, and the result was validated in 287 subjects. Sensitivity was 85% (95%CI: 75-92%) and 78% (95%CI: 70-85%), specificity was 55% (95%CI: 44-65%) and 42% (95%CI: 34-50%), in calibration and validation phases, respectively. Test sensitivity and specificity were lower in men. CONCLUSION The electronic-nose showed modest sensitivity and low specificity among patients with suspected PTB. To improve the sensitivity, a larger calibration group needs to be involved. With its portable form, it could be used for TB screening in remote rural areas and health care settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia M. I. Saktiawati
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis, Groningen, the Netherlands
- Center for Tropical Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Ymkje Stienstra
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Internal Medicine—Infectious Diseases, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Yanri W. Subronto
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
- Center for Tropical Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Ning Rintiswati
- Center for Tropical Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Sumardi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | | | - Henny Oord
- eNose B.V. (The eNose Company), Zutphen, The Netherlands
| | - Onno W. Akkerman
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis, Groningen, the Netherlands
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Tuberculosis Center Beatrixoord, Haren, the Netherlands
| | - Tjip S. van der Werf
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis, Groningen, the Netherlands
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Internal Medicine—Infectious Diseases, Groningen, the Netherlands
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Wojnowski W, Dymerski T, Gębicki J, Namieśnik J. Electronic Noses in Medical Diagnostics. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:197-215. [PMID: 28982314 DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666171004164636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Electronic nose technology is being developed in order to analyse complex mixtures of volatiles in a way parallel to biologic olfaction. When applied in the field of medicine, the use of such devices should enable the identification and discrimination between different diseases. In this review, a comprehensive summary of research in medical diagnostics using electronic noses is presented. A special attention has been paid to the application of these devices and sensor technologies, in response to current trends in medicine. METHODS Peer-reviewed research literature pertaining to the subject matter was identified based on a search of bibliographic databases. The quality and relevance of retrieved papers was assessed using standard tools. Their content was critically reviewed and certain information contained therein was compiled in tabularized form. RESULTS The majority of reviewed studies show promising results, often surpassing the accuracy and sensitivity of established diagnostic methods. However, only a relatively small number of devices have been field tested. The methods used for sample collection and data processing in various studies were listed in a table, together with electronic nose models used in these investigations. CONCLUSION Despite the fact that devices equipped with arrays of chemical sensors are not routinely used in everyday medical practice, their prospective use would solve some established issues in medical diagnostics, as well as lead to developments in prophylactics by facilitating a widespread use of non-invasive screening tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Wojnowski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Tomasz Dymerski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jacek Gębicki
- Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Jacek Namieśnik
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Chemical Faculty, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
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Sánchez C, Santos JP, Lozano J. Use of Electronic Noses for Diagnosis of Digestive and Respiratory Diseases through the Breath. BIOSENSORS 2019; 9:E35. [PMID: 30823459 PMCID: PMC6468564 DOI: 10.3390/bios9010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The increased occurrence of chronic diseases related to lifestyle or environmental conditions may have a detrimental effect on long-term health if not diagnosed and controlled in time. For this reason, it is important to develop new noninvasive early diagnosis equipment that allows improvement of the current diagnostic methods. This, in turn, has led to an exponential development of technology applied to the medical sector, such as the electronic nose. In addition, the appearance of this type of technology has allowed the possibility of studying diseases from another point of view, such as through breath analysis. This paper presents a bibliographic review of past and recent studies, selecting those investigations in which a patient population was studied with electronic nose technology, in order to identify potential applications of this technology in the detection of respiratory and digestive diseases through the analysis of volatile organic compounds present in the breath.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Sánchez
- Institute of Physics Technology and Information (CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- Up Devices and Technologies, 28021 Madrid, Spain.
| | - J Pedro Santos
- Institute of Physics Technology and Information (CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Jesús Lozano
- Industrial Engineering School, University of Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain.
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Finamore P, Scarlata S, Incalzi RA. Breath analysis in respiratory diseases: state-of-the-art and future perspectives. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2018; 19:47-61. [PMID: 30575423 DOI: 10.1080/14737159.2019.1559052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The vast majority of respiratory diseases are associated with the production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the analysis of which might improve our knowledge about these disorders and their clinical management. The aim of this narrative review is to provide a comprehensive summary of current evidence supporting the application of breath analysis in the field of respiratory diseases, as well as suggesting potential applications available in the near future. Areas covered: A computerized literature search was performed to identify relevant articles reporting original data on the clinical use of breath analysis in respiratory diseases. Papers focusing on diseases other than respiratory, technical issues of VOC sampling and analysis, in vitro experiments or exogenous compounds were excluded. Expert commentary: Currently available evidence on the application of breath analysis in respiratory diseases is encouraging; however, it is mostly based on single-center studies without external validation. The standardization of the technique, together with multicenter clinical trials with external validation, will ensure it is ready for clinical use. Current and new applications in respiratory diseases may represent a major breakthrough in the field, so much so as to deserve further efforts in outlining the most effective way to apply VOC analysis for clinical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simone Scarlata
- a Unit of Geriatrics , Campus Bio-Medico University, Rome, Italy
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Hüppe T, Volk T, Kreuer S. Developments to monitor the exhalome in organ failure in critically ill patients-a look into the future. J Breath Res 2018; 13:017101. [PMID: 30224561 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/aae210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Critically ill patients typically need some kind of functional organ support or replacement. Cardiopulmonary and renal replacement therapies are well established measures in intensive care units. However, there are also inherent risks associated with these treatments. The appropriate and timely commencement, maintenance and termination of organ replacement procedures currently use weak surrogates as decision support in clinical practice. A more reasonable application of extracorporeal organ support can be expected to potentially lower adverse events and save costs in healthcare systems, if a precise online monitoring was available. The analysis of the exhalome offers great opportunities to detect circulatory, pulmonary, and renal failure in critically ill patients. Volatile organic compounds and exhalation patterns are associated with a series of metabolic disorders and may be key to indicate the appropriate time point for initiation, maintenance and termination of organ support technologies. It may thus be expected that mortality, infection risk, replacement therapy days, and medical costs of intensive care treatment may possibly be reduced using exhalome analysis for control of organ replacement therapies in the distant future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Hüppe
- Centre of Breath Research, Department of Anaesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Therapy, Saarland University Medical Centre, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Pizzini A, Filipiak W, Wille J, Ager C, Wiesenhofer H, Kubinec R, Blaško J, Tschurtschenthaler C, Mayhew CA, Weiss G, Bellmann-Weiler R. Analysis of volatile organic compounds in the breath of patients with stable or acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Breath Res 2018; 12:036002. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/aaa4c5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Greulich T, Fischer H, Lubbe D, Nell C, Ingo Baumbach J, Koehler U, Boeselt T, Vogelmeier C, Koczulla AR. Obstructive sleep apnea patients can be identified by ion mobility spectrometry-derived smell prints of different biological materials. J Breath Res 2018; 12:026006. [PMID: 29083318 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/aa96e2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The analysis of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) is time- and cost-intensive. A number of studies demonstrated that the non-invasive analysis of exhaled breath (EB) may be suitable to distinguish between OSAS patients and healthy subjects (HS). Methods/Population: We included OSAS patients (n = 15) and HS (n = 15) in this diagnostic proof-of-concept-study. All participants underwent polygraphy to verify or exclude OSAS and performed spirometry to exclude pulmonary ventilatory diseases. The volatile organic compound profile of EB and of the headspaces over EB condensate, pharyngeal washing fluid, and serum was measured using ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) (BioScout®) and an e-nose (Cyranose® 320). For the statistical analysis, we fitted classification tree models using recursive partitioning, followed by a leave-one-out cross-validation. For the cross-validated predictions we calculated descriptive classification statistics, p-values from a [Formula: see text]-test with continuity correction, as well as ROC curves. RESULTS Using IMS, OSAS patients and HS could be distinguished with high accuracy (values ranged from 79% to 97%). The results of the e-nose-derived analyses (with the exception of EB) were less accurate. However, the cross-validated accuracy for EB was very good (0.9), reflecting a positive predictive value of 100% and a negative predictive value of 83%. For each material, we identified the best five substances that may be used for diagnostic purposes. 2-Methylfluran was found in three different biological materials to be discriminative between OSAS and HS. CONCLUSION The results strengthen the hypothesis that substances detectable in headspace measurements of different airway and blood materials may undergo a transition from blood into the alveoli (and EB) or vice versa. This means that substances from different compartments could be used to distinguish patients with airway diseases (in this case OSAS) from healthy controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Greulich
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University Medical Centre Giessen and Marburg, Philipps-University, Member of the German Centre for Lung Research (DZL), D-35043 Marburg, Germany
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Dragonieri S, Pennazza G, Carratu P, Resta O. Electronic Nose Technology in Respiratory Diseases. Lung 2017; 195:157-165. [PMID: 28238110 DOI: 10.1007/s00408-017-9987-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Electronic noses (e-noses) are based on arrays of different sensor types that respond to specific features of an odorant molecule, mostly volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Differently from gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, e-noses can distinguish VOCs spectrum by pattern recognition. E-nose technology has successfully been used in commercial applications, including military, environmental, and food industry. Human-exhaled breath contains a mixture of over 3000 VOCs, which offers the postulate that e-nose technology can have medical applications. Based on the above hypothesis, an increasing number of studies have shown that breath profiling by e-nose could play a role in the diagnosis and/or screening of various respiratory and systemic diseases. The aim of the present study was to review the principal literature on the application of e-nose technology in respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvano Dragonieri
- Department of Respiratory Diseases, University of Bari, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124, Bari, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Pennazza
- Unit of Electronics for Sensor Systems, Center for Integrated Research, Campus Bio-Medico University, Rome, Italy
| | - Pierluigi Carratu
- Department of Respiratory Diseases, University of Bari, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Onofrio Resta
- Department of Respiratory Diseases, University of Bari, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124, Bari, Italy
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Bos LD, Sterk PJ, Fowler SJ. Breathomics in the setting of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 138:970-976. [PMID: 27590400 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Exhaled breath contains thousands of volatile organic compounds that reflect the metabolic process occurring in the host both locally in the airways and systemically. They also arise from the environment and airway microbiome. Comprehensive analysis of breath volatile organic compounds (breathomics) provides opportunities for noninvasive biomarker discovery and novel mechanistic insights. Applications in patients with obstructive lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, include not only diagnostics (especially in children and other challenging diagnostic areas) but also identification of clinical treatable traits, such as airway eosinophilia and risk of infection/exacerbation, that are not specific to diagnostic labels. Although many aspects of breath sampling and analysis are challenging, proof-of-concept studies with mass spectrometry and electronic nose technologies have provided independent studies with moderate-to-good diagnostic and phenotypic accuracies. The present review evaluates the data obtained by using breathomics in (1) predicting the inception of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, (2) inflammatory phenotyping, (3) exacerbation prediction, and (4) treatment stratification. The current findings merit the current efforts of large multicenter studies using standardized sampling, shared analytic methods, and databases, including external validation cohorts. This will position this noninvasive technology in the clinical assessment and monitoring of chronic airways diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieuwe D Bos
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Peter J Sterk
- Department of Respiratory Medicine and Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stephen J Fowler
- Centre for Respiratory Medicine and Allergy, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University Hospital of South Manchester NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Chan DK, Leggett CL, Wang KK. Diagnosing gastrointestinal illnesses using fecal headspace volatile organic compounds. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:1639-1649. [PMID: 26819529 PMCID: PMC4721995 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i4.1639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Revised: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from stool are the components of the smell of stool representing the end products of microbial activity and metabolism that can be used to diagnose disease. Despite the abundance of hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane that have already been identified in human flatus, the small portion of trace gases making up the VOCs emitted from stool include organic acids, alcohols, esters, heterocyclic compounds, aldehydes, ketones, and alkanes, among others. These are the gases that vary among individuals in sickness and in health, in dietary changes, and in gut microbial activity. Electronic nose devices are analytical and pattern recognition platforms that can utilize mass spectrometry or electrochemical sensors to detect these VOCs in gas samples. When paired with machine-learning and pattern recognition algorithms, this can identify patterns of VOCs, and thus patterns of smell, that can be used to identify disease states. In this review, we provide a clinical background of VOC identification, electronic nose development, and review gastroenterology applications toward diagnosing disease by the volatile headspace analysis of stool.
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Leopold JH, Bos LDJ, Sterk PJ, Schultz MJ, Fens N, Horvath I, Bikov A, Montuschi P, Di Natale C, Yates DH, Abu-Hanna A. Comparison of classification methods in breath analysis by electronic nose. J Breath Res 2015; 9:046002. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/9/4/046002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Shoffel-Havakuk H, Frumin I, Lahav Y, Haviv L, Sobel N, Halperin D. Increased number of volatile organic compounds over malignant glottic lesions. Laryngoscope 2015; 126:1606-11. [PMID: 26490745 DOI: 10.1002/lary.25733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS Electronic noses can identify diseases, including head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) by the fingerprint of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled air. However, whether these VOCs originated from the malignant lesion itself remains unclear. The objective was to test for the presence and properties of VOCs directly over the vocal folds in malignant and benign lesions, as a potential tool for noninvasive screening. STUDY DESIGN Prospective observational case control study. METHODS Samples of mucus directly covering vocal fold lesions were analyzed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry for detection of VOCs, and evaluation of the properties and quantity of VOCs in the samples. Additionally, samples of oropharyngeal mucus were analyzed to exclude VOCs found also in the vicinity of the lesion. Benign and malignant lesion groups were compared using a nonparametric (Mann-Whitney) test. RESULTS We studied 14 patients, six with SCC and eight with benign pathology. We found an increased number of discrete VOC types in patients with SCC both above the lesion (SCC = 4.333 ± 2.5, benign = 0.875 ± 0.6; Z=3, P < .001) and directly above the lesion with exclusion of its vicinity (SCC = 3.167 ± 1.9, benign = 0.5 ± 0.5; Z = 2.8, P < .003). VOCs detected in SCCs but not in benign samples included the straight-chain fatty acids: butyric acid, pentanoic acid, hexanoic acid, and heptanoic acid. CONCLUSIONS Compared with benign vocal fold lesions, the environment of vocal folds in SCC is enriched with VOCs. These preliminary findings highlight a unique pattern that may contribute to the development of a future minimally invasive technology for screening vocal fold lesions for malignancy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE NA Laryngoscope, 126:1606-1611, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagit Shoffel-Havakuk
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel, affiliated with the Hebrew University Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Idan Frumin
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yonatan Lahav
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel, affiliated with the Hebrew University Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Lior Haviv
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Noam Sobel
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Doron Halperin
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel, affiliated with the Hebrew University Jerusalem, Israel
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Bach JP, Gold M, Mengel D, Hattesohl A, Lubbe D, Schmid S, Tackenberg B, Rieke J, Maddula S, Baumbach JI, Nell C, Boeselt T, Michelis J, Alferink J, Heneka M, Oertel W, Jessen F, Janciauskiene S, Vogelmeier C, Dodel R, Koczulla AR. Measuring Compounds in Exhaled Air to Detect Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132227. [PMID: 26168044 PMCID: PMC4500505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is diagnosed based upon medical history, neuropsychiatric examination, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, extensive laboratory analyses and cerebral imaging. Diagnosis is time consuming and labour intensive. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is mainly diagnosed on clinical grounds. Objective The primary aim of this study was to differentiate patients suffering from AD, PD and healthy controls by investigating exhaled air with the electronic nose technique. After demonstrating a difference between the three groups the secondary aim was the identification of specific substances responsible for the difference(s) using ion mobility spectroscopy. Thirdly we analysed whether amyloid beta (Aβ) in exhaled breath was causative for the observed differences between patients suffering from AD and healthy controls. Methods We employed novel pulmonary diagnostic tools (electronic nose device/ion-mobility spectrometry) for the identification of patients with neurodegenerative diseases. Specifically, we analysed breath pattern differences in exhaled air of patients with AD, those with PD and healthy controls using the electronic nose device (eNose). Using ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), we identified the compounds responsible for the observed differences in breath patterns. We applied ELISA technique to measure Aβ in exhaled breath condensates. Results The eNose was able to differentiate between AD, PD and HC correctly. Using IMS, we identified markers that could be used to differentiate healthy controls from patients with AD and PD with an accuracy of 94%. In addition, patients suffering from PD were identified with sensitivity and specificity of 100%. Altogether, 3 AD patients out of 53 participants were misclassified. Although we found Aβ in exhaled breath condensate from both AD and healthy controls, no significant differences between groups were detected. Conclusion These data may open a new field in the diagnosis of neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Further research is required to evaluate the significance of these pulmonary findings with respect to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maike Gold
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - David Mengel
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Akira Hattesohl
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Dirk Lubbe
- Department of Psychology, Division of Methodology and Statistics of the University of Giessen, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Severin Schmid
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Björn Tackenberg
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Rieke
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Sasidhar Maddula
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Jörg Ingo Baumbach
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Reutlingen University, 72762 Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Christoph Nell
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Boeselt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Joan Michelis
- Clinical Neuroscience Unit, Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Judith Alferink
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Michael Heneka
- Clinical Neuroscience Unit, Department of Neurology, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
- German Centre for Neurodegenerative Disease (DZNE), 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Oertel
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Frank Jessen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, 53105 Bonn, Germany
- German Centre for Neurodegenerative Disease (DZNE), 53105 Bonn, Germany
| | - Sabina Janciauskiene
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Hannover, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Claus Vogelmeier
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Richard Dodel
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Andreas Rembert Koczulla
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Diseases, Philipps-University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
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Bikov A, Lázár Z, Horvath I. Established methodological issues in electronic nose research: how far are we from using these instruments in clinical settings of breath analysis? J Breath Res 2015; 9:034001. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/9/3/034001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Scarlata S, Pennazza G, Santonico M, Pedone C, Antonelli Incalzi R. Exhaled breath analysis by electronic nose in respiratory diseases. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2015; 15:933-56. [PMID: 25959642 DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2015.1043895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Breath analysis via electronic nose is a technique oriented around volatile organic compound (VOC) profiling in exhaled breath for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. This approach, when supported by methodologies for VOC identification, has been often referred to as metabolomics or breathomics. Although breath analysis may have a substantial impact on clinical practice, as it may allow early diagnosis and large-scale screening strategies while being noninvasive and inexpensive, some technical and methodological limitations must be solved, together with crucial interpretative issues. By integrating a review of the currently available literature with more speculative arguments about the potential interpretation and application of VOC analysis, the authors aim to provide an overview of the main relevant aspects of this promising field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Scarlata
- Unit of Respiratory Pathophysiology, Campus Bio-Medico University and Teaching Hospital, Via Alvaro del Portillo 200 - 00128, Rome, Italy
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Advances in electronic-nose technologies for the detection of volatile biomarker metabolites in the human breath. Metabolites 2015; 5:140-63. [PMID: 25738426 PMCID: PMC4381294 DOI: 10.3390/metabo5010140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in the use of electronic-nose (e-nose) devices to analyze human breath profiles for the presence of specific volatile metabolites, known as biomarkers or chemical bio-indicators of specific human diseases, metabolic disorders and the overall health status of individuals, are providing the potential for new noninvasive tools and techniques useful to point-of-care clinical disease diagnoses. This exciting new area of electronic disease detection and diagnosis promises to yield much faster and earlier detection of human diseases and disorders, allowing earlier, more effective treatments, resulting in more rapid patient recovery from various afflictions. E-nose devices are particularly suited for the field of disease diagnostics, because they are sensitive to a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and can effectively distinguish between different complex gaseous mixtures via analysis of electronic aroma sensor-array output profiles of volatile metabolites present in the human breath. This review provides a summary of some recent developments of electronic-nose technologies, particularly involving breath analysis, with the potential for providing many new diagnostic applications for the detection of specific human diseases associated with different organs in the body, detectable from e-nose analyses of aberrant disease-associated VOCs present in air expired from the lungs.
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Pereira J, Porto-Figueira P, Cavaco C, Taunk K, Rapole S, Dhakne R, Nagarajaram H, Câmara JS. Breath analysis as a potential and non-invasive frontier in disease diagnosis: an overview. Metabolites 2015; 5:3-55. [PMID: 25584743 PMCID: PMC4381289 DOI: 10.3390/metabo5010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, a small number of diseases, particularly cardiovascular (CVDs), oncologic (ODs), neurodegenerative (NDDs), chronic respiratory diseases, as well as diabetes, form a severe burden to most of the countries worldwide. Hence, there is an urgent need for development of efficient diagnostic tools, particularly those enabling reliable detection of diseases, at their early stages, preferably using non-invasive approaches. Breath analysis is a non-invasive approach relying only on the characterisation of volatile composition of the exhaled breath (EB) that in turn reflects the volatile composition of the bloodstream and airways and therefore the status and condition of the whole organism metabolism. Advanced sampling procedures (solid-phase and needle traps microextraction) coupled with modern analytical technologies (proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry, selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry, ion mobility spectrometry, e-noses, etc.) allow the characterisation of EB composition to an unprecedented level. However, a key challenge in EB analysis is the proper statistical analysis and interpretation of the large and heterogeneous datasets obtained from EB research. There is no standard statistical framework/protocol yet available in literature that can be used for EB data analysis towards discovery of biomarkers for use in a typical clinical setup. Nevertheless, EB analysis has immense potential towards development of biomarkers for the early disease diagnosis of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Pereira
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Funchal 9000-390, Portugal.
| | - Priscilla Porto-Figueira
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Funchal 9000-390, Portugal.
| | - Carina Cavaco
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Funchal 9000-390, Portugal.
| | - Khushman Taunk
- Proteomics Lab, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Srikanth Rapole
- Proteomics Lab, National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Rahul Dhakne
- Laboratory of Computational Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 001, India.
| | - Hampapathalu Nagarajaram
- Laboratory of Computational Biology, Centre for DNA Fingerprinting & Diagnostics, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 001, India.
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, Funchal 9000-390, Portugal.
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Shaw JG, Vaughan A, Dent AG, O'Hare PE, Goh F, Bowman RV, Fong KM, Yang IA. Biomarkers of progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). J Thorac Dis 2014; 6:1532-47. [PMID: 25478195 DOI: 10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.11.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Disease progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is variable, with some patients having a relatively stable course, while others suffer relentless progression leading to severe breathlessness, frequent acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD), respiratory failure and death. Radiological markers such as CT emphysema index, bronchiectasis and coronary artery calcification (CAC) have been linked with increased mortality in COPD patients. Molecular changes in lung tissue reflect alterations in lung pathology that occur with disease progression; however, lung tissue is not routinely accessible. Cell counts (including neutrophils) and mediators in induced sputum have been associated with lung function and risk of exacerbations. Examples of peripheral blood biological markers (biomarkers) include those associated with lung function (reduced CC-16), emphysema severity (increased adiponectin, reduced sRAGE), exacerbations and mortality [increased CRP, fibrinogen, leukocyte count, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)] including increased YKL-40 with mortality. Emerging approaches to discovering markers of gene-environment interaction include exhaled breath analysis [volatile organic compounds (VOCs), exhaled breath condensate], cellular and systemic responses to exposure to air pollution, alterations in the lung microbiome, and biomarkers of lung ageing such as telomere length shortening and reduced levels of sirtuins. Overcoming methodological challenges in sampling and quality control will enable more robust yet easily accessible biomarkers to be developed and qualified, in order to optimise personalised medicine in patients with COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet G Shaw
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Annalicia Vaughan
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Annette G Dent
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Phoebe E O'Hare
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Felicia Goh
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Rayleen V Bowman
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kwun M Fong
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ian A Yang
- 1 Department of Thoracic Medicine, The Prince Charles Hospital, Brisbane, Australia ; 2 UQ Thoracic Research Centre, School of Medicine, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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Detection of bloodstream infections and prediction of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in preterm neonates with an electronic nose. J Pediatr 2014; 165:622-4. [PMID: 24929333 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We show that smellprints of volatile organic components measured with an electronic nose (Cyranose 320; Smiths Detection Group Ltd, Watford, United Kingdom) differ between tracheal aspirates from preterm neonates with or without laboratory-confirmed bloodstream infections and with or without subsequent development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Tracheal aspirate smellprints could be useful noninvasive diagnostic markers for preterm neonates.
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37
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Marco S. The need for external validation in machine olfaction: emphasis on health-related applications. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:3941-56. [PMID: 24817347 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-7807-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, electronic nose research has produced thousands of research works. Many of them were describing the ability of the e-nose technology to solve diverse applications in domains ranging from food technology to safety, security, or health. It is, in fact, in the biomedical field where e-nose technology is finding a research niche in the last years. Although few success stories exist, most described applications never found the road to industrial or clinical exploitation. Most described methodologies were not reliable and were plagued by numerous problems that prevented practical application beyond the lab. This work emphasizes the need of external validation in machine olfaction. I describe some statistical and methodological pitfalls of the e-nose practice and I give some best practice recommendations for researchers in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Marco
- Signal and Information Processing for Sensing Systems, Department of Biomedical Signals and Instrumentation, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, 08028, Barcelona, Spain,
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Arasaradnam RP, Covington JA, Harmston C, Nwokolo CU. Review article: next generation diagnostic modalities in gastroenterology--gas phase volatile compound biomarker detection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014; 39:780-9. [PMID: 24612215 DOI: 10.1111/apt.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The detection of airborne gas phase biomarkers that emanate from biological samples like urine, breath and faeces may herald a new age of non-invasive diagnostics. These biomarkers may reflect status in health and disease and can be detected by humans and other animals, to some extent, but far more consistently with instruments. The continued advancement in micro and nanotechnology has produced a range of compact and sophisticated gas analysis sensors and sensor systems, focussed primarily towards environmental and security applications. These instruments are now increasingly adapted for use in clinical testing and with the discovery of new gas volatile compound biomarkers, lead naturally to a new era of non-invasive diagnostics. AIM To review current sensor instruments like the electronic nose (e-nose) and ion mobility spectroscopy (IMS), existing technology like gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) and their application in the detection of gas phase volatile compound biomarkers in medicine - focussing on gastroenterology. METHODS A systematic search on Medline and Pubmed databases was performed to identify articles relevant to gas and volatile organic compounds. RESULTS E-nose and IMS instruments achieve sensitivities and specificities ranging from 75 to 92% in differentiating between inflammatory bowel disease, bile acid diarrhoea and colon cancer from controls. For pulmonary disease, the sensitivities and specificities exceed 90% in differentiating between pulmonary malignancy, pneumonia and obstructive airways disease. These sensitivity levels also hold true for diabetes (92%) and bladder cancer (90%) when GC-MS is combined with an e-nose. CONCLUSIONS The accurate reproducible sensing of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using portable near-patient devices is a goal within reach for today's clinicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Arasaradnam
- Clinical Sciences Research Institute, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK; Department of Gastroenterology, University Hospital Coventry & Warwickshire, Coventry, UK
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Di Natale C, Paolesse R, Martinelli E, Capuano R. Solid-state gas sensors for breath analysis: a review. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 824:1-17. [PMID: 24759744 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of volatile compounds is an efficient method to appraise information about the chemical composition of liquids and solids. This principle is applied to several practical applications, such as food analysis where many important features (e.g. freshness) can be directly inferred from the analysis of volatile compounds. The same approach can also be applied to a human body where the volatile compounds, collected from the skin, the breath or in the headspace of fluids, might contain information that could be used to diagnose several kinds of diseases. In particular, breath is widely studied and many diseases can be potentially detected from breath analysis. The most fascinating property of breath analysis is the non-invasiveness of the sample collection. Solid-state sensors are considered the natural complement to breath analysis, matching the non-invasiveness with typical sensor features such as low-cost, easiness of use, portability, and the integration with the information networks. Sensors based breath analysis is then expected to dramatically extend the diagnostic capabilities enabling the screening of large populations for the early diagnosis of pathologies. In the last years there has been an increased attention to the development of sensors specifically aimed to this purpose. These investigations involve both specific sensors designed to detect individual compounds and non-specific sensors, operated in array configurations, aimed at clustering subjects according to their health conditions. In this paper, the recent significant applications of these sensors to breath analysis are reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrado Di Natale
- Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via del Politecnico 1, Roma 00133, Italy.
| | - Roberto Paolesse
- Department of Chemical Science and Technology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via della Ricerca Scientifica, Roma 00133, Italy
| | - Eugenio Martinelli
- Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via del Politecnico 1, Roma 00133, Italy
| | - Rosamaria Capuano
- Department of Electronic Engineering, University of Rome Tor Vergata, via del Politecnico 1, Roma 00133, Italy
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Fens N, van der Schee MP, Brinkman P, Sterk PJ. Exhaled breath analysis by electronic nose in airways disease. Established issues and key questions. Clin Exp Allergy 2014; 43:705-15. [PMID: 23786277 DOI: 10.1111/cea.12052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Exhaled air contains many volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are the result of normal and disease-associated metabolic processes anywhere in the body. Different omics techniques can assess the pattern of these VOCs. One such omics technique suitable for breath analysis is represented by electronic noses (eNoses), providing fingerprints of the exhaled VOCs, called breathprints. Breathprints have been shown to be altered in different disease states, including in asthma and COPD. This review describes the current status on clinical validation and application of breath analysis by electronic noses in the diagnosis and monitoring of chronic airways diseases. Furthermore, important methodological issues including breath sampling, modulating factors and incompatibility between eNoses are raised and discussed. Next steps towards clinical application of electronic noses are provided, including further validation in suspected disease, assessment of the influence of different comorbidities, the value in longitudinal monitoring of patients with asthma and COPD and the possibility to predict treatment responses. Eventually, a Breath Cloud may be constructed, a large database containing disease-specific breathprints. When collaborative efforts are put into optimization of this technique, it can provide a rapid and non-invasive first line diagnostic test.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Fens
- Dept. of Respiratory Medicine, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22700, NL-1100 DE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Application of the electronic nose technique to differentiation between model mixtures with COPD markers. SENSORS 2013; 13:5008-27. [PMID: 23591962 PMCID: PMC3673123 DOI: 10.3390/s130405008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The paper presents the potential of an electronic nose technique in the field of fast diagnostics of patients suspected of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). The investigations were performed using a simple electronic nose prototype equipped with a set of six semiconductor sensors manufactured by FIGARO Co. They were aimed at verification of a possibility of differentiation between model reference mixtures with potential COPD markers (N,N-dimethylformamide and N,N-dimethylacetamide). These mixtures contained volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as acetone, isoprene, carbon disulphide, propan-2-ol, formamide, benzene, toluene, acetonitrile, acetic acid, dimethyl ether, dimethyl sulphide, acrolein, furan, propanol and pyridine, recognized as the components of exhaled air. The model reference mixtures were prepared at three concentration levels-10 ppb, 25 ppb, 50 ppb v/v-of each component, except for the COPD markers. Concentration of the COPD markers in the mixtures was from 0 ppb to 100 ppb v/v. Interpretation of the obtained data employed principal component analysis (PCA). The investigations revealed the usefulness of the electronic device only in the case when the concentration of the COPD markers was twice as high as the concentration of the remaining components of the mixture and for a limited number of basic mixture components.
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van de Kant KDG, van der Sande LJTM, Jöbsis Q, van Schayck OCP, Dompeling E. Clinical use of exhaled volatile organic compounds in pulmonary diseases: a systematic review. Respir Res 2012; 13:117. [PMID: 23259710 PMCID: PMC3549749 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-13-117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing interest in the potential of exhaled biomarkers, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), to improve accurate diagnoses and management decisions in pulmonary diseases. The objective of this manuscript is to systematically review the current knowledge on exhaled VOCs with respect to their potential clinical use in asthma, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), and respiratory tract infections. A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane database, and reference lists of retrieved studies. Controlled, clinical, English-language studies exploring the diagnostic and monitoring value of VOCs in asthma, COPD, CF, lung cancer and respiratory tract infections were included. Data on study design, setting, participant characteristics, VOCs techniques, and outcome measures were extracted. Seventy-three studies were included, counting in total 3,952 patients and 2,973 healthy controls. The collection and analysis of exhaled VOCs is non-invasive and could be easily applied in the broad range of patients, including subjects with severe disease and children. Various research groups demonstrated that VOCs profiles could accurately distinguish patients with a pulmonary disease from healthy controls. Pulmonary diseases seem to be characterized by a disease specific breath-print, as distinct profiles were found in patients with dissimilar diseases. The heterogeneity of studies challenged the inter-laboratory comparability. In conclusion, profiles of VOCs are potentially able to accurately diagnose various pulmonary diseases. Despite these promising findings, multiple challenges such as further standardization and validation of the diverse techniques need to be mastered before VOCs can be applied into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim D G van de Kant
- Department of Pediatric Pulmonology, School for Public Health and Primary Care (CAPHRI), Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), P,O, Box 5800, 6202, AZ, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
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Knight DA, Yang IA, Ko FWS, Lim TK. Year in review 2011: asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and airway biology. Respirology 2012; 17:563-72. [PMID: 22248232 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2012.02126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darryl A Knight
- UBC James Hogg Research Centre, Institute for Heart + Lung Health, Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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