Role of GABA A inhibition in modulation of pyramidal tract neuron activity during postural corrections

Contribution of the ventrolateral thalamus to the locomotion-related activity of motor cortex

The activity of motor cortex is necessary for accurate stepping on a complex terrain. How this activity is generated remains unclear. The goal of this study was to clarify the contribution of signals from the ventrolateral thalamus (VL) to formation of locomotion-related activity of motor cortex during vision-independent and vision-dependent locomotion. In two cats, we recorded the activity of neurons in layer V of motor cortex as cats walked on a flat surface and a horizontal ladder. We reversibly inactivated ~10% of the VL unilaterally with the glutamatergic transmission antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) and analyzed how this affected the activity of motor cortex neurons. We examined neuronal subpopulations with somatosensory receptive fields on different segments of the forelimb and pyramidal tract projecting neurons (PTNs). We found that the VL contribution to the locomotion-related activity of motor cortex is very powerful and has both excitatory and inhibitory components. The magnitudes of both the excitatory and inhibitory contributions fluctuate over the step cycle and depend on locomotion task. On a flat surface, the VL contributes more excitation to the shoulder- and elbow-related neurons than the wrist/paw-related cells. The VL excites the shoulder-related group the most during the transition from stance to swing phase, while most intensively exciting the elbow-related group during the transition from swing to stance. The VL contributes more excitation for the fast- than slow-conducting PTNs. Upon transition to vision-dependent locomotion on the ladder, the VL contribution increases more for the wrist/paw-related neurons and slow-conducting PTNs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY How the activity of motor cortex is generated and the roles that different inputs to motor cortex play in formation of response properties of motor cortex neurons during movements remain unclear. This is the first study to characterize the contribution of the input from the ventrolateral thalamus (VL), the main subcortical input to motor cortex, to the activity of motor cortex neurons during vision-independent and vision-dependent locomotion.

Contribution of supraspinal systems to generation of automatic postural responses

Different species maintain a particular body orientation in space due to activity of the closed-loop postural control system. In this review we discuss the role of neurons of descending pathways in operation of this system as revealed in animal models of differing complexity: lower vertebrate (lamprey) and higher vertebrates (rabbit and cat). In the lamprey and quadruped mammals, the role of spinal and supraspinal mechanisms in the control of posture is different. In the lamprey, the system contains one closed-loop mechanism consisting of supraspino-spinal networks. Reticulospinal (RS) neurons play a key role in generation of postural corrections. Due to vestibular input, any deviation from the stabilized body orientation leads to activation of a specific population of RS neurons. Each of the neurons activates a specific motor synergy. Collectively, these neurons evoke the motor output necessary for the postural correction. In contrast to lampreys, postural corrections in quadrupeds are primarily based not on the vestibular input but on the somatosensory input from limb mechanoreceptors. The system contains two closed-loop mechanisms - spinal and spino-supraspinal networks, which supplement each other. Spinal networks receive somatosensory input from the limb signaling postural perturbations, and generate spinal postural limb reflexes. These reflexes are relatively weak, but in intact animals they are enhanced due to both tonic supraspinal drive and phasic supraspinal commands. Recent studies of these supraspinal influences are considered in this review. A hypothesis suggesting common principles of operation of the postural systems stabilizing body orientation in a particular plane in the lamprey and quadrupeds, that is interaction of antagonistic postural reflexes, is discussed.

Distinct Thalamo-Cortical Controls for Shoulder, Elbow, and Wrist during Locomotion

Recent data from this laboratory on differential controls for the shoulder, elbow, and wrist exerted by the thalamo-cortical network during locomotion is presented, based on experiments involving chronically instrumented cats walking on a flat surface and along a horizontal ladder. The activity of the following three groups of neurons is characterized: (1) neurons of the motor cortex that project to the pyramidal tract (PTNs), (2) neurons of the ventrolateral thalamus (VL), many identified as projecting to the motor cortex (thalamo-cortical neurons, TCs), and (3) neurons of the reticular nucleus of thalamus (RE), which inhibit TCs. Neurons were grouped according to their receptive field into shoulder-, elbow-, and wrist/paw-related categories. During simple locomotion, shoulder-related PTNs were most active in the late stance and early swing, and on the ladder, often increased activity and stride-related modulation while reducing discharge duration. Elbow-related PTNs were most active during late swing/early stance and typically remained similar on the ladder. Wrist-related PTNs were most active during swing, and on the ladder often decreased activity and increased modulation while reducing discharge duration. In the VL, shoulder-related neurons were more active during the transition from swing-to-stance. Elbow-related cells tended to be more active during the transition from stance-to-swing and on the ladder often decreased their activity and increased modulation. Wrist-related neurons were more active throughout the stance phase. In the RE, shoulder-related cells had low discharge rates and depths of modulation and long periods of activity distributed evenly across the cycle. In sharp contrast, wrist/paw-related cells discharged synchronously during the end of stance and swing with short periods of high activity, high modulation, and frequent sleep-type bursting. We conclude that thalamo-cortical network processes information related to different segments of the forelimb differently and exerts distinct controls over the shoulder, elbow, and wrist during locomotion.

Physiological and circuit mechanisms of postural control

The postural system maintains a specific body orientation and equilibrium during standing and during locomotion in the presence of many destabilizing factors (external and internal). Numerous studies in humans have revealed essential features of the functional organization of this system. Recent studies on different animal models have significantly supplemented human studies. They have greatly expanded our knowledge of how the control system operates, how the postural functions are distributed within different parts of CNS, and how these parts interact with each other to produce postural corrections and adjustments. This review outlines recent advances in the studies of postural control in quadrupeds, with special attention given the neuronal postural mechanisms.

Role of GABA A inhibition in modulation of pyramidal tract neuron activity during postural corrections

In a previous study we demonstrated that the activity of pyramidal tract neurons (PTNs) of the motor cortex is modulated in relation to postural corrections evoked by periodical tilts of the animal. The modulation included an increase in activity in one phase of the tilt cycle and a decrease in the other phase. It is known that the motor cortex contains a large population of inhibitory GABAergic neurons. How do these neurons participate in periodic modulation of PTNs? The goal of this study was to investigate the role of GABA(A) inhibitory neurons of the motor cortex in the modulation of postural-related PTN activity. Using extracellular electrodes with attached micropipettes, we recorded the activity of PTNs in cats maintaining balance on a tilting platform both before and after iontophoretic application of the GABA(A) receptor antagonists gabazine or bicuculline. The tilt-related activity of 93% of PTNs was affected by GABA(A) receptor antagonists. In 88% of cells, peak activity increased by 75 +/- 50% (mean +/- SD). In contrast, the trough activity changed by a much smaller value and almost as many neurons showed a decrease as showed an increase. In 73% of the neurons, the phase position of the peak activity did not change or changed by no more than 0.1 of a cycle. We conclude that the GABAergic system of the motor cortex reduces the posture-related responses of PTNs but has little role in determining their response timing.