Dexamethasone versus ondansetron in combination with dexamethasone for the prophylaxis of postoperative vomiting in pediatric outpatients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Postdischarge nausea and vomiting (PDNV) in children: A review and observational study

Postdischarge nausea and vomiting (PDNV) cause substantial pediatric morbidity with potentially serious postoperative complications. However, few studies have addressed PDNV prevention and treatment in pediatric patients. Here we searched the literature and processed it in a narrative review describing PDNV incidence, risk factors, and management in pediatric patients.. A successful strategy for reducing PDNV considers both the pharmacokinetics of the antiemetic agents and the principle of multimodal prophylaxis, utilizing agents of different pharmacologic classes. Since many highly effective antiemetic agents have relatively short half-lives, a different approach must be used to prevent PDNV. A combination of oral and intravenous medications with longer half-lives, such as palonosetron or aprepitant, can be used. In addition, we designed a prospective observational study with the primary objective of determining PDNV incidence. In our study group of 205 children, the overall PDNV incidence was 14.6% (30 of 205), including 21 children suffering from nausea and 9 suffering from vomiting.

Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting in Pediatric Patients

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV), postoperative vomiting (POV), post-discharge nausea and vomiting (PDNV), and opioid-induced nausea and vomiting (OINV) continue to be causes of pediatric morbidity, delay in discharge, and unplanned hospital admission. Research on the pathophysiology, risk assessment, and therapy for PDNV, OINV and pain therapy options in children has received increased attention. Multimodal pain management with the use of perioperative regional and opioid-sparing analgesia has helped decrease nausea and vomiting. Two common emetogenic surgical procedures in children are adenotonsillectomy and strabismus repair. Although PONV risk factors differ between adults and children, the approach to decrease baseline risk is similar. As PONV and POV are frequent in children, antiemetic prophylaxis should be considered for those at risk. A multimodal approach for antiemetic and pain therapy involves preoperative risk evaluation and stratification, antiemetic prophylaxis, and pain management with opioid-sparing medications and regional anesthesia. Useful antiemetics include dexamethasone and serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-3 (5-HT3) receptor antagonists such as ondansetron. Multimodal combination prophylactic therapy using two or three antiemetics from different drug classes and propofol total intravenous anesthesia should be considered for children at high PONV risk. "Enhanced recovery after surgery" protocols include a multimodal approach with preoperative preparation, adequate intravenous fluid hydration, opioid-sparing analgesia, and prophylactic antiemetics. PONV guidelines and management algorithms help provide effective postoperative care for pediatric patients.

Anaesthesia, pain and recovery profiles in children following dental extractions

The aim of this prospective cohort study was to describe the anaesthetic practices, rates of postoperative pain and the recovery trajectory of children having urgent dental extractions at our institution. Demographic, anaesthetic and surgical details of children undergoing dental extractions were obtained by case note review. Parent-proxy pain scores were collected via telephone on the day of surgery and on postoperative days, as well as details of analgesia given, behavioural disturbance, and nausea and vomiting. Follow-up was continued until each child no longer had pain. Datasets were analysed for 143 patients. Fasting times were prolonged, with 81 children (56.6%) fasted for over four hours from fluids. Moderate or severe pain was recorded in 14 children (9.8%) postoperatively on the day of surgery, with higher rates in children who had a greater number of teeth extracted. Low rates of moderate to severe pain were observed during follow-up, affecting six children (4.2%) on postoperative day 1 and three children (2.1%) on postoperative day 2 with primarily simple analgesia administered at home. Only eight children (5.6%) had nausea and/or vomiting on the day of surgery. Rates of reported behavioural disturbance at home were low, extending beyond the second postoperative day in only two children (1.4%), and only four children (2.8%) attended a dentist during the follow-up period. In conclusion, the low rates of pain and nausea and vomiting reported in the days following surgery for urgent dental procedures suggest that children can be cared for at home with simple analgesia.

Postoperative pain management in children: Guidance from the pain committee of the European Society for Paediatric Anaesthesiology (ESPA Pain Management Ladder Initiative)

The main remit of the European Society for Paediatric Anaesthesiology (ESPA) Pain Committee is to improve the quality of pain management in children. The ESPA Pain Management Ladder is a clinical practice advisory based upon expert consensus to help to ensure a basic standard of perioperative pain management for all children. Further steps are suggested to improve pain management once a basic standard has been achieved. The guidance is grouped by the type of surgical procedure and layered to suggest basic, intermediate, and advanced pain management methods. The committee members are aware that there are marked differences in financial and personal resources in different institutions and countries and also considerable variations in the availability of analgesic drugs across Europe. We recommend that the guidance should be used as a framework to guide best practice.

Incidence and factors contributing to postdischarge nausea and vomiting in pediatric ambulatory surgical cases

BACKGROUND

Little is known regarding the incidence and contributing factors of postdischarge nausea and vomiting in children.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of postdischarge nausea and vomiting in day surgery patients and to identify demographic, intraoperative, and postoperative variables that influence the risk.

METHODS

In this prospective observational study, a postdischarge questionnaire was administered to parents of ambulatory patients who received anesthesia and the electronic records were reviewed.

RESULTS

Of 1041 ambulatory patients who received general anesthesia, 143 (14%) experienced postdischarge nausea and vomiting. Patients who did not receive intraoperative opioids had a lower incidence (8%) than those who received short-acting opioids (14%) (difference of 6%, 95% CI 1.9%-10.2%, P < .001) or long-acting opioids (24%) (difference of 16%, 95% CI 8.1%-24.3%, P < .001). Patients who received short-acting opioids also had a lower incidence than those who received long-acting opioids (difference of 10%, 95% CI 2.2%-18.1%, P < .001). The incidence also differed between those patients who received postdischarge opioids at home (29%) and those who did not (13%) (difference of 16%, 95% CI 7.5%-27.6%, P < .001). There was no association with age, gender, airway management, nitrous oxide use, amount of intravenous fluids, duration of anesthesia, intraoperative antiemetic administration or dosage, length of time from recovery room discharge to first oral intake, or length of ride home from the hospital. Multivariate generalized linear regression analysis confirmed intraoperative (short-acting opioids odds ratio 1.686, 95% CI 1.020-2.787; long-acting opioids odds ratio 3.093, 95% CI 1.634-5.874) and postdischarge (odds ratio 2.037 95% CI 1.142-3.632) opioids to be independent risk factors for postdischarge nausea and vomiting.

CONCLUSION

We found an incidence of postdischarge nausea and vomiting of 14%. Intraoperative and postdischarge opioids increase the risk, with long-acting intraoperative opioids further accentuating the risk.

Granisetron versus Granisetron-Dexamethasone for Prevention of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting in Pediatric Strabismus Surgery: A Randomized Double-Blind Trial

Aim. Efficacy of granisetron and combination of granisetron and dexamethasone was evaluated for prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) in children undergoing elective strabismus surgery. Methods. A total of 136 children (1–15 years) were included. Children received either granisetron (40 mcg/kg) [group G] or combination of granisetron (40 mcg/kg) and dexamethasone (150 mcg/kg) [group GD]. Intraoperative fentanyl requirement and incidence and severity of oculocardiac reflex were assessed. PONV severity was assessed for first 24 hours and if score was >2, it was treated with metoclopramide. Postoperative analgesia was administered with intravenous fentanyl and ibuprofen. Results. The demographic profile, muscles operated, and fentanyl requirement were comparable. Complete response to PONV in first 24 hours was observed in 75% (51/68) of children in group G and 76.9% (50/65) of children in group GD, which was comparable statistically (p = 0.96, Fisher exact test; OR 1.11, 95% CI 0.50, 2.46). Incidence of PONV between 0 and 24 hours was comparable. One child in group G required rescue antiemetic in first 24 hours and none of the children had severe PONV in group GD. There was no significant difference in incidence or severity of oculocardiac reflex. Conclusion. Dexamethasone did not increase efficacy of granisetron for prevention of PONV in elective pediatric strabismus surgery. Registration number of clinical trial was CTRI/2009/091/001000.

Postoperative nausea and vomiting in pediatric anesthesia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) has a high incidence in children and requires prophylactic and therapeutic strategies.

RECENT FINDINGS

PONV can be reduced by the avoidance of nitrous oxide, volatile anesthetics, and the reduction of postoperative opioids. The use of dexamethasone, 5-HT3 antagonists, or droperidol alone is potent, but combinations are even more effective to reduce PONV. Droperidol has a Food and Drug Administration warning. Hence, dexamethasone and 5-HT3 antagonists should be preferred as prophylactic drugs. It is further reasonable to adapt PONV prophylaxis to different risk levels. Prolonged surgery time, inpatients, types of surgery (e.g. strabismus and ear-nose-throat surgery), and patients with PONV in history should be treated as high risk, whereas short procedures and outpatients are to be treated as low risk.

SUMMARY

Concluding from the existing guidelines and data on the handling of PONV in children at least 3 years, the following recommendations are given: outpatients undergoing small procedures should receive a single prophylaxis, outpatients at high risk a double prophylaxis, inpatients with surgery time of more than 30 min and use of postoperative opioids should get double prophylaxis, and inpatients receiving a high-risk surgical procedure or with other risk factors a triple prophylaxis (two drugs and total intravenous anesthesia). Dimenhydrinate can be used as a second choice, whereas droperidol and metoclopramide can only be recommended as rescue therapy.

Common post-operative complications in children

The exact incidence of common post-operative complications in children is not known. Most common one is post-operative nausea and vomiting followed by respiratory complications leading to hypoxia. Cardiac complications are less in children without associated congenital cardiac anomaly. Post-operative shivering, agitation and delirium are seen more often in children anaesthetised with newer inhalational agents like sevoflurane and desflurane. Urinary retention in the post-operative period could be influenced by anaesthetic drugs and regional blocks. The purpose of this article is to review the literature and present to the postgraduate students comprehensive information about the current understanding and practice pattern on various common complications in the post-operative period. Extensive literature was searched with key words of various complications from Pubmed, Google scholar and specific journal, namely paediatric anaesthesia. The relevant articles, review article meta-analysis and editorials were the primary source of information for this article.