The role of perfectionism in daily self-esteem, attachment, and negative affect

The indirect effects of perfectionism on athletes' self-views through maladaptive emotion regulation

Introduction

In general, increased levels of perfectionism have been associated with increased levels of burnout, heightened levels of depression and anxiety, lowered self-esteem, and poorer overall performance, yet perfectionistic strivings within athletes have also been associated with lower burnout and better performance in some contexts.

Methods

The current study investigated whether emotion regulation strategies would indirectly link perfectionism with self-esteem in young adults who had participated in competitive athletics. Two hundred and fifty-three primarily white (60.0 %), female (83.0 %) undergraduate students who had participated in competitive athletics completed a series of questionnaires including: the Self-liking and Self-Competence Scale - Revised, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the short form of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale.

Results

The PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to examine the indirect association between perfectionism and self-esteem through emotion regulation. Higher self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism were both indirectly associated with lower self-liking and self-competence through greater catastrophizing and self-blame.

Discussion

For individuals like athletes, who experience internal and external pressures, increased perfectionism may lead to negative self-views through maladaptive emotion regulation. However, longitudinal and experimental work is needed to establish this proposed pattern of relationships.

Perfectionism and alcohol-related problems: The role of procrastination

OBJECTIVE

College drinking is a significant individual and societal problem, and thus, identifying risk factors to alcohol-related problems has been an important line of inquiry. Adding to this rich literature, the current study examined whether perfectionism dimensions were associated with alcohol-related problems and whether a poor self-regulation process linked these associations.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 410 university students completed measures pertaining to perfectionism, procrastination, and negative consequences of alcohol use.

METHODS

Parallel mediation models were tested.

RESULTS

There was support for an indirect effect in the association between perfectionistic concerns and alcohol-related problems through susceptibility to temptation but not through pure procrastination or irrational procrastination. Perfectionistic strivings dimension was not associated with alcohol-related problems and this relation was not mediated by any procrastination dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS

Building internal resources to better resist immediately gratifying yet long-run detrimental behavioral habits is important, especially so for highly self-critical students.

Perfectionism in anorexia nervosa: Associations with clinical picture and personality traits

Although many researchers addressed the topics, no consistent data are currently available regarding the relationship between perfectionism and personality traits in anorexia nervosa (AN). The present study aimed to assess differences between high- and low-perfectionism groups of patients with AN and to identify which variables show the strongest association with perfectionism. A group of inpatients with AN (n = 193) was recruited and completed a battery of self-report questionnaires regarding eating-related and general psychopathology, perfectionism, and personality. On the basis of perfectionism scores, patients were divided into high- and low-perfectionism groups. High-perfectionist patients displayed higher eating-related and general psychopathology; higher depressive, cyclothymic, irritable and anxious temperament, and lower self-directedness, cooperativeness and self-esteem. Perfectionism was associated with the drive for thinness, cooperativeness, self-esteem and anxious temperament. On the basis of the two personality traits most strongly correlated with perfectionism (i.e., cooperativeness and anxious temperament), patients could be correctly assigned to the high- or low-perfectionism group by an algorithm. The study suggests that perfectionism in AN is related to eating psychopathology, especially of restrictive type, and personality features such as cooperativeness and anxious temperament. These findings confirm the important role of perfectionism in AN, not only concerning eating behaviour but personality as well.

Compulsive exercise and its relationship with mental health and psychosocial wellbeing in recreational exercisers and athletes

OBJECTIVES

Better understanding of compulsive exercise is needed in sports medicine. Whilst compulsive exercise may impact mental health, the limited research exploring the relationship between compulsive exercise and psychosocial outcomes is equivocal. The majority of studies have examined eating disorder populations where the eating disorder pathology might account for distress. This study explores relationships between compulsive exercise and mental health.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational study.

METHODS

Australian recreational exercisers and athletes (N = 1157; M_age 36.4, standard deviation = 12.9, 77 % female) recruited through sporting organisations, clubs, and gyms, completed measures of compulsive exercise, depression, anxiety, stress, life satisfaction, social physique anxiety, and self-esteem. Regression analyses examined relationships between dimensions of compulsive exercise and wellbeing.

RESULTS

After adjustment for eating disorder symptoms and sporting level, compulsive exercise was associated with increased risk of clinically-significant anxiety, depression, and stress symptoms. Compulsive exercise was also associated with lower life satisfaction and self-esteem, and higher social physique anxiety. Notably, different dimensions of compulsive exercise had varying relationships with outcomes, and avoidance and rule-driven behaviour and lack of exercise enjoyment were associated with poorer mental health and wellbeing.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that compulsive exercise is uniquely associated with a range of psychosocial and mental health outcomes. Results support the need to improve identification and treatment of compulsive exercise in sport and exercise settings. Results highlight that mental health intervention is an important component of treatment, and treatments targeting symptoms related to avoidance and rule-driven behaviour, and anhedonia may be valuable treatment components for those with compulsive exercise.

A motivational approach to perfectionism and striving for excellence: Development of a new continuum-based scale for post-secondary students

Perfectionism has been the object of many disputes. One such debate pertains to the nature of perfectionistic strivings. Whereas perfectionistic concerns (PC) have been shown to correlate with negative outcomes, perfectionistic strivings (PS) have been associated with mixed outcomes. This view of perfectionism assumes a motivational perspective; however, commonly used questionnaires assess motivation only implicitly. To create a more explicit measure of motivation as regard perfectionism, we aimed to assess perfectionism in post-secondary education based on Deci and Ryan's self-determination continuum. We posit that introjected motivation represents the variance common to both dimensions of perfectionism. External motivation is considered to be specific to PC and identified motivation to PS. Amotivation represents a lack of meaningful striving. Intrinsic motivation, lacking perfectionism's pressure, is conceptualized to be a self-determined form of striving for excellence. We further posited that this continuum is implicitly underlain by a continuum of self-definition as defined by Blatt. The resulting questionnaire showed an adequate structure with ESEM, followed a simplex structure, and had adequate reliabilities (Study 1a/Study 2). It also showed adequate convergent validity (Study 1b/Study 2). Finally, the questionnaire proved to be invariant over a 6-week period (Study 2). Results suggest that the degree of active goal pursuit, in addition to standards setting, could be a distinguishing characteristic between dimensions of perfectionism as well as striving for excellence.

Does self-esteem mediate the association between perfectionism and mindfulness among Lebanese university students?

Objectives

To evaluate the associations between mindfulness, self-esteem and perfectionism in a Lebanese sample of university students, as well as the indirect effect of self-esteem between mindfulness and perfectionism was investigated.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was carried out between July and September 2021. A total of 363 university students were recruited through convenience sampling through several universities in Lebanon’s governorates. An online survey that included a part that collected sociodemographic information, the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory to assess mindfulness, the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale to assess self-esteem and the Big Three Perfectionism Scale to assess perfectionism was completed by participants.

Results

Higher self-esteem (Beta = 1.30) was significantly associated with more mindfulness, whereas higher self-critical perfectionism (Beta = − 0.61) was significantly associated with less mindfulness. Self-esteem mediated the association between self-critical and narcissistic perfectionism and mindfulness. More perfectionism was significantly and directly associated with less mindfulness and lower self-esteem, whereas higher self-esteem was significantly associated with more mindfulness.

Conclusion

This study provides valuable findings that enable practitioners to effectively identify people needing interventions to improve psychological health through mindfulness, self-esteem and perfectionism. The conclusions that can be deduced from this study can help educational psychologists and counselors guide university students towards effective mindfulness practices that can increase self-esteem levels and balance maladaptive perfectionism that can cause distress and impairment in the social and academic settings.

Perfectionism and L2 Achievement: The Mediating Roles of Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning Among Iranian High School Students

The current study investigated how perfectionism can be related to L2 learners’ achievement with motivation and two aspects of self-regulated learning as possible mediators. This study also evaluated the factor structure of the Big Three Perfectionism Scale (BTPS) in an Iranian sample. The participants were 495 Iranian high school students who completed six BTPS sub-scales and measures of self-determined motivation and self-regulated learning. Psychometric analyses indicated that rigid perfectionism and self-critical perfectionism as two higher order factors have construct validity. Structural equation modeling indicated that rigid perfectionism positively predicted L2 achievement, while self-critical perfectionism negatively predicted L2 achievement. Mediational models indicated that neither autonomous-mastery/performance motivation nor controlled motivation mediated the path from perfectionism to L2 achievement. However, both aspects of self-regulated learning, namely, deep learning and persistence could mediate the relationship between perfectionism and L2 achievement. Specifically, higher levels of self-critical perfectionism were positively related to deep learning and persistence that, in turn, were related to higher L2 achievement. In contrast, self-critical perfectionism was negatively related to deep learning and persistence, that, in turn, were related to lower L2 achievement. The results are discussed in terms of the practical implications for L2 teachers and parents.

College Academic Perfectionism Scale: Development and Validation

Maladaptive perfectionism has a documented association with mental health problems, yet the context of maladaptive perfectionism (i.e., the domain where individuals exhibit such a trait) is rarely considered. This study aimed to develop a measure for academic perfectionism among college students and assess its psychometric properties. Five hundred and thirty-two college students were recruited from introductory-level psychology courses and completed questionnaires online. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses determined the factor structure and model fit of the scale, and bivariate correlation and multiple regression analyses assessed the validity of the scale. The results suggested that the College Academic Perfectionism Scale consists of two higher order factors, rigid academic perfectionism and self-critical academic perfectionism, and self-critical academic perfectionism consists of three sub-factors, academic self-criticism, doubts about actions, and socially prescribed academic perfectionism. The scale has an adequate confirmatory model fit, excellent reliability, and high construct validity. Incremental validity over general perfectionism was established.

Modeling pathways to non‐suicidal self‐injury: The roles of perfectionism, negative affect, rumination, and attention control

Objective

Using the Emotional Cascade Model as a theoretical framework, this study tested whether the relationship between perfectionism and non‐suicidal self‐injury (NSSI) operates through rumination and negative affect. Additionally, we tested whether the associations between perfectionism and both rumination and negative affect are moderated by attention control.

Methods

Using a correlational cross‐sectional design, adults aged 18–25 with (N = 197) and without (N = 271) a history of NSSI completed measures of perfectionism, rumination, negative affect, attention control, and NSSI.

Results

Perfectionism was directly associated with increased odds of NSSI, and indirectly associated with odds of NSSI through rumination and negative affect. The relationship between perfectionism and rumination was moderated by attention focusing, such that the relationship was stronger for individuals who were higher in attention focusing.

Conclusion

Integrating perfectionism and attention with existing models of NSSI may improve understanding of the factors contributing to NSSI and offers insights into future clinical directions.

Trait Emotional Intelligence and Happiness of Young Adults: The Mediating Role of Perfectionism

Perfectionism or a tendency to aim for an unrealistic standard can impair happiness. However, the potential mechanisms of perfectionism to explain the association between trait emotional intelligence (EI) and happiness are still understudied. This study explores the mediating role of perfectionism in the relationship between trait emotional intelligence (EI) and happiness among young adults. A cross-sectional sample of 259 young adults aged between 18 to 35 years old was recruited. All analyses were conducted using SPSS and AMOS Structural Equation Modeling. High trait EI was linked to low perfectionism and high happiness levels. Furthermore, perfectionism mediated the relationship between trait EI and happiness. Although high trait EI lowered maladaptive perfectionism, the negative impact of maladaptive perfectionism remained and subsequently led to decreasing happiness levels of young adults. This study offers an enhanced understanding of the role of perfectionism in explaining the happiness state of young adults. Moreover, it provides practical implications for using trait EI and managing perfectionism tendency to manage the happiness and wellbeing of the young adult population.

Are Perfectionistic Standards Associated with Burnout? Multidimensional Perfectionism and Compassion Experiences Among Professional MFTs

The current study addressed the role that perfectionism plays among professionals in this field of marriage and family therapy (MFT). Specifically, this study provides information about PS (personal standards) perfectionism and EC (evaluative concerns) and their relationship with both compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue. The sample included 247 marriage and family therapists who answered demographic questions along with completing the professional quality of life scale (ProQOL; as reported by Stamm, B. H. (2009). Professional Quality of Life: Compassion Satisfaction and Fatigue Version 5 (ProQOL). Retrieved from http://www.proqol.org/ProQol_Test.html; Stamm in The concise ProQOL manual, ProQOL.org, 2010;) and the multidimensional perfectionism scale (MPS; Hewitt and Flett, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60:456–470, 1991). Results indicated three significant findings: (1) higher levels of both self-oriented and socially oriented perfectionism are correlated with higher levels of both burnout and secondary traumatic stress; (2) as years of work as an MFT increase, level of burnout decreases; and (3) women demonstrated statistically significantly higher scores in PS perfectionism than men. Limitations, implications, and future directions are discussed.

Self-critical Rumination and Associated Metacognitions as Mediators of the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Self-esteem

Past research has shown that perfectionism, can negatively impact self-esteem. However, the mediating factors that explain this relationship remain unclear. The current study aimed to investigate whether specific cognitive processes, namely, self-critical rumination and associated metacognitions, mediate this relationship. An opportunity sample of 347 participants completed a battery of online questionnaires measuring clinical perfectionism, self-critical rumination, metacognitions about self-critical rumination, self-esteem, and levels of psychological distress. Several hypotheses were tested to examine the associations between the study variables. Following this, a path analysis was used to determine whether the influence of perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic striving on self-esteem is mediated by positive metacognitions about self-critical rumination, self-critical rumination, and negative metacognitions about self-critical rumination, serially. Positive metacognitions about self-critical rumination, self-critical rumination, and negative metacognitions about self-critical rumination partially mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and self-esteem and fully mediated the relationship between perfectionistic striving and self-esteem. These results point towards possible interventions for those who struggle with low self-esteem due to their perfectionistic tendencies. Further investigations should explore additional factors that help to explain why perfectionism impacts self-esteem levels, whilst also addressing the limitations of this current research.

Perfectionism and the Impact of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Daily Life

Abstract. Previous research indicates that socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) are associated with extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, respectively. However, little is known about the impact of daily intrinsic and extrinsic motivated goals on affect in perfectionists. This daily diary study examined the extent to which perfectionism moderates the relationship between motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and affect (including self-conscious emotions). Participants ( N = 132) varying in levels of perfectionism completed 14 days of online surveys that included questions about pursuit of daily goals and affect. SOP did not predict the covariation of types of motivation and affect. SPP, by contrast, predicted the covariation of extrinsic motivation and guilt (and pride). Results suggest that for people high on SPP, pursuing extrinsic motivated goals is associated with higher levels of guilt and lower levels of pride. Future directions and implications are discussed.

An examination of emotion dysregulation in maladaptive perfectionism

Maladaptive perfectionism has been shown to be associated with undesirable outcomes, such as elevated negative emotions and psychopathological traits. Perhaps unsurprisingly, there is preliminary evidence that maladaptive perfectionism is also related to emotion dysregulation. However, the nature of emotion dysregulation in perfectionism has not been characterized. In this review, Gross and Jazaieri's (2014) clinically-informed framework of emotion dysregulation is used to review the evidence of emotion dysregulation in maladaptive perfectionism. Specifically, this paper reviews evidence of problematic emotional experiences and unhelpful emotion regulation strategies in maladaptive perfectionism and discusses how poor emotional awareness and emotion regulation goals may also contribute to emotion dysregulation. A conceptual model of these components of emotion dysregulation in maladaptive perfectionism is proposed in which heightened negative affect in response to threatened perfectionistic standards is posited to be at the core of emotion dysregulation, and implicit and explicit unhelpful emotion regulation strategies and poor emotion regulation goals are suggested to contribute to further dysregulation and elevated negative affect. Clinical implications, limitations in the extant research, and future directions are discussed.

Adolescent perfectionism: Structural features of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and correlates with attachment and psychopathology

OBJECTIVES

Perfectionism is recognized as a significant risk factor for psychopathology. Emerging research links attachment to perfectionism in adult and college-age samples. The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) has been used in adults and adolescents with a variety of factor structures found. This study sought to establish the factor structure in a general adolescent sample prior to testing for associations between perfectionism, attachment, and psychopathology in the same sample.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey design was used. Confirmatory factor analysis, and correlational and regression analyses were employed.

METHODS

A total of 290 adolescents, aged 12-18 years, were recruited from a state secondary school. All completed the FMPS along with brief measures of attachment and psychopathology.

RESULT

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses failed to replicate previously published models, and a new six-item, 1-factor model representing perfectionism was found instead. This new variable was then used to establish a role for perfectionism and attachment anxiety in predicting internalizing problems. Perfectionism also correlated with conduct problems and hyperactivity.

CONCLUSION

This study established a novel factor structure for the FMPS, allowing proof of principle of the role of perfectionism in a relationship with attachment and psychopathology, which after replication, may inform new interventions for perfectionism. Caution is noted about the use of extant perfectionism measures that are not properly developmentally informed and which do not capture the dynamic nature of adolescence and adolescent perfectionism.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Perfectionism is a feature of adolescent psychopathology, including internalizing and externalizing problems. Perfectionism is associated with attachment anxiety and together contributes to internalizing problems. Current conceptualizations of perfectionism may not capture the specific developmental and dynamic aspects of adolescence and should not be regarded as a stable personality trait.

Negative Affect and Child Internalizing Symptoms: The Mediating Role of Perfectionism

Separate lines of research have linked the temperament factor negative affect and perfectionism with internalizing disorders. Despite theory, no previous studies have connected these lines of research to examine internalizing pathology. The current study tested a path model to investigate the mediating effect of perfectionism domains on the relation between negative affect and child anxiety, worry, and depression symptoms. Participants were 61 parent-child dyads recruited from the community. Children were 7-13 years old (54.1 % male; 88.2 % Caucasian). Overall the model fit the data well. Analyses indicated that separate domains of perfectionism mediated separate relations between negative affect and child anxiety, worry, and depression symptoms. The findings suggest that domains of perfectionism may be implicated in specific paths between negative affect and child anxiety, depression, and worry. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Longitudinal dynamics of depressogenic personality and attachment dimensions in adolescence: an examination of associations with changes in depressive symptoms

Depressogenic personality and attachment are two major factors related to the development of adolescents' depressive symptoms. However, no previous longitudinal studies have examined simultaneously both vulnerability factors in relationship to depressive symptoms. The present study examined associations between intra-individual change in adolescents' depressogenic personality orientations (i.e., sociotropy and autonomy), dimensions of mother-adolescent attachment (i.e., anxiety and avoidance), and depressive symptoms. The sample of the present research consisted of 289 high school students (mean age = 12.51 years at Time 1, 66% female) participating in a 3-wave cohort-sequential design. Latent growth curve modeling revealed no significant intra-individual change in depressogenic personality orientations but significant changes in dimensions of attachment and symptoms of depression. Initial levels of sociotropy were not related significantly to changes in attachment dimensions and depressive symptoms. High initial levels of autonomy were associated with increases in attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depressive symptoms. In addition, results suggested that the association between initial levels of autonomy and increases in depressive symptoms was mediated by increases in attachment anxiety and avoidance. The discussion focuses on the status of depressogenic personality and attachment as risk factors for depression.