Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome: rare or underrecognized in children?

Headache Attributed to Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome (RCVS)

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) is a condition with variable outcomes presenting a new onset thunderclap headache accompanied by focal neurological symptoms or seizures. It can be idiopathic or arise secondarily to a variety of trigger factors. The condition is increasingly recognized in clinical practice, but many facets remain poorly understood. This article aims to clarify the headache characteristics in RCVS, the temporal association of angiographic findings, the potential association of the condition with SARS-CoV-2 infection, and the clinical presentation of RCVS in children and is based on a systematic PRISMA search for published analytical or large descriptive observational studies. Data from 60 studies that fulfilled specific criteria were reviewed. Most people with RCVS exhibit a typical thunderclap, explosive, or pulsatile/throbbing headache, or a similar acute and severe headache that takes longer than 1 min to peak. Atypical presentations or absence of headaches are also reported and may be an underrecognized phenotype. In many cases, headaches may persist after resolution of RCVS. Focal deficits or seizures are attributed to associated complications including transient ischemic attacks, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, ischemic stroke, cerebral edema, and intracranial hemorrhage. The peak of vasoconstriction occurs usually within two weeks after clinical onset, possibly following a pattern of centripetal propagation, and tends to resolve completely within 3 months, well after symptoms have subsided. There are a few reports of RCVS occurring in relation to SARS-CoV-2 infection, but potential underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms and etiological associations have not been confirmed. RCVS occurs in children most often in the context of an underlying disease. Overall, the available data in the literature are scattered, and large-scale prospective studies and international collaborations are needed to further characterize the clinical presentation of RCVS.

Neuromonitoring in Children with Cerebrovascular Disorders

BACKGROUND

Cerebrovascular disorders are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in children. The acute care of a child with an ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke or cerebral sinus venous thrombosis focuses on stabilizing the patient, determining the cause of the insult, and preventing secondary injury. Here, we review the use of both invasive and noninvasive neuromonitoring modalities in the care of pediatric patients with arterial ischemic stroke, nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage, and cerebral sinus venous thrombosis.

METHODS

Narrative review of the literature on neuromonitoring in children with cerebrovascular disorders.

RESULTS

Neuroimaging, near-infrared spectroscopy, transcranial Doppler ultrasonography, continuous and quantitative electroencephalography, invasive intracranial pressure monitoring, and multimodal neuromonitoring may augment the acute care of children with cerebrovascular disorders. Neuromonitoring can play an essential role in the early identification of evolving injury in the aftermath of arterial ischemic stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, or sinus venous thrombosis, including recurrent infarction or infarct expansion, new or recurrent hemorrhage, vasospasm and delayed cerebral ischemia, status epilepticus, and intracranial hypertension, among others, and this, is turn, can facilitate real-time adjustments to treatment plans.

CONCLUSIONS

Our understanding of pediatric cerebrovascular disorders has increased dramatically over the past several years, in part due to advances in the neuromonitoring modalities that allow us to better understand these conditions. We are now poised, as a field, to take advantage of advances in neuromonitoring capabilities to determine how best to manage and treat acute cerebrovascular disorders in children.

Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome with Intracerebral Hemorrhage in a Thalassemic Child—An Extremely Rare Complication

A 6-year-old known thalassemic boy presented with a posttransfusional thunderclap headache. A computed tomography scan showed left occipital lobar bleed and magnetic resonance angiography showed diffuse cerebral vasoconstriction, which resolved after 3 months, suggesting reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome. He was treated with oral nimodipine for 3 months and had an excellent recovery without sequelae. To the best of the authors' knowledge, the index case is the first reported case of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome in a thalassemic child.

Intra-arterial vasodilators infusion for management of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome in a 12-year-old girl: A case report

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) is a vascular disease characterized by diffuse transient vasoconstriction and vasodilatation of the cerebral arteries. It is commonly associated with recurrent severe acute headaches with or without focal neurological deficits due to hemorrhages, infarcts, and even posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. The optimal management of acute neurologic deficits caused by RCVS is still uncertain. Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) such as nimodipine or verapamil have been reported to be effective in adult series. Intra-arterial injection of nimodipine, verapamil, and milrinone has recently been demonstrated to be safe and effective for treating severe segmental vasoconstriction in adults. CCBs are the most used treatment in the available pediatric literature. Intra-arterial vasodilators have been reported in some rare pediatric reports with more severe diseases, but their utility is still under investigation. We report a case of a 12-year-old girl who underwent a severe course of RCVS complicated by multiple cerebral infarcts, treated by several sessions of intra-arterial vasodilators infusion.

Pediatric Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome: Two Unique Cases with a Review of all Reported Children

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) has been well described in adults, but pediatric cases are yet under recognized. We described two children with RCVS and review similar already published pediatric cases. The first patient was a 10-year-old girl who presented with severe headaches and seizures 3 days after blood transfusion. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed changes compatible with posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Magnetic resonance angiogram showed diffuse vasoconstriction of multiple cerebral arteries. The second patient was a 9-year-old male child who presented with severe thunderclap headaches. Brain MRI showed isolated intraventricular hemorrhage. Computed tomography/MR angiogram and digital subtraction angiogram were normal. A week later, he developed focal neurological deficits. Repeated MR angiogram showed diffuse vasospasm of multiple intracranial arteries. Both children recovered completely. A clinico-radiological review of previously reported childhood RCVS is provided.

Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome and Sickle Cell Disease: A Case Report

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS), is rare in the pediatric population and is characterized by severe headaches and other neurologic symptoms. We present a case of RCVS occurring concomitantly with posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome in an 8-year-old African American child with sickle cell disease (HbSS). Imaging studies including computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and cerebral angiography of the brain showed acute hemorrhagic stroke and a beaded appearance of peripheral cerebral vessels. In this report, we focus on the typical features of RCVS and discuss the underlying risk factors that may increase the risk in patients with HbSS disease.

Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome in Pediatrics: A Case Series and Review

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome is a transient vasculopathy associated with severe headaches and stroke. In most cases of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome, there is a precipitating event or trigger, such as pregnancy, serotonin agonist treatment or illicit drug use. The authors present 2 pediatric cases of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome and review the previous 11 pediatric cases in the literature. In many instances, the clinical and radiographic features are similar in both pediatric and adult cases. In the pediatric group, reported potential triggers include trauma (1/13), exercise (2/13), water to the face (3/13), hypertension (3/13), and medication or substance use (4/13). One surprising difference is that 11 out of 13 pediatric patients with reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome are male while most cases in adults are female. Many of the pediatric patients with reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome were treated with a calcium channel blocker and the overall outcome of pediatric reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome was good, with most patients experiencing a full recovery.

A Pediatric Case of Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome With Similar Radiographic Findings to Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome occurs predominantly in middle-aged women. Only nine pediatric patients with this syndrome have been reported.

PATIENT DESCRIPTION

We present a ten-year-old boy with reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome with radiographic findings similar to those of posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES). He presented with a thunderclap headache without a neurological deficit. Brain magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) revealed multifocal narrowing of the cerebral arteries, whereas magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with diffusion-weighted imaging and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery demonstrated hyperintense lesions in the occipital lobes and the left cerebellum. The patient's symptoms resolved spontaneously after a few hours with no recurrence. MRA on the second day showed a complete normalization of the affected arteries, and MRI after one month demonstrated improvement in the abnormal findings, leading to a diagnosis of RCVS with radiographic findings similar to those of PRES.

CONCLUSIONS

This child's findings suggests that, RCVS, with or without PRES, may occur in children who present with a thunderclap headache.

Usual and Unusual Manifestations of Systemic and Central Nervous System Vasculitis

The idiopathic vasculitides are a group of inflammatory and immune-mediated conditions associated with inflammation of blood vessels. They affect multiple organ and body systems, and vary in their clinical manifestations, severity, prognosis, and pathology. They frequently present a diagnostic challenge for clinicians because of their complexity, overlapping features, and similar findings to other noninflammatory, genetic, or infectious conditions. This article summarizes some of the common pediatric vasculitides, emphasizing both the characteristic and unusual clinical manifestations of these diseases.

Infants dying suddenly and unexpectedly share demographic features with infants who die with retinal and dural bleeding: a review of neural mechanisms

The cause of death in infants who die suddenly and unexpectedly (sudden unexpected death in infancy [SUDI]) remains a diagnostic challenge. Some infants have identified diseases (explained SUDI); those without explanation are called sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Demographic data indicate subgroups among SUDI and SIDS cases, such as unsafe sleeping and apparent life-threatening events. Infants dying suddenly with retinal and dural bleeding are often classified as abused, but in many there is no evidence of trauma. Demographic features suggest that they may represent a further subgroup of SUDI. This review examines the neuropathological hypotheses to explain SIDS and highlights the interaction of infant oxygen-conserving reflexes with the brainstem networks considered responsible for SIDS. We consider sex- and age-specific vulnerabilities related to dural bleeding and how sensitization of the dural innervation by bleeding may influence these reflexes, potentially leading to collapse or even death after otherwise trivial insults.

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome manifesting as focal seizures without a thunderclap headache: A pediatric case report

We report a pediatric case of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome with focal seizures without a thunderclap headache. A 7-year-old girl had a mild acute headache with nausea after swimming. She subsequently developed hemi-convulsions followed by right hemiplegia. Brain magnetic resonance angiography revealed generalized vasoconstriction of the main cerebral peripheral arteries. Her hemiplegia was spontaneously resolved within 6h. Over the next 24h she suffered from recurrent and transient headaches, which recurred on days 3 and 5. Follow-up magnetic resonance angiography on day 3 documented the multifocal narrowing of the main cerebral arteries, which was observed to have diminished at 12weeks after her initial presentation. She did not have any headaches or neurological deficits after day 5. This case indicates that reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome should be considered in children with focal seizures even when they do not present with thunderclap headaches. The timely and appropriate evaluation by magnetic resonance angiography and imaging is essential for diagnosing reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome.

[Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome: A rare pediatric cause of thunderclap headaches]

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) is characterized by thunderclap headaches with diffuse segmental constriction of cerebral arteries that resolves spontaneously within 3 months. We report on a case of a 13-year-old boy presenting with acute severe headaches, triggered by physical exertion. His past medical history was uneventful. Moderate headache persisted between exacerbations for 4 weeks. He secondarily presented with signs of intracranial hypertension. Brain magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) revealed multifocal narrowing of the cerebral arteries. A glucocorticoid treatment was started based on the hypothesis of primary angiitis of the CNS. The symptoms rapidly improved, and repeat angiography at 3 months showed no vasoconstriction. Although pediatric cases are rare, RCVS should be considered in a child complaining of severe headache, especially after the use of vasoactive drugs or after Valsalva manoeuvres. RCVS is attributed to a transient, reversible dysregulation of cerebral vascular tone, which leads to multifocal arterial constriction and dilation. Physical examination, laboratory values, and initial cranial computed tomography are unremarkable, except when RCVS is associated with complications. Thunderclap headaches tend to resolve and then recur over a 1- to 4-week period, often with a milder baseline headache persisting between acute exacerbations. Angiography shows segmental narrowing and dilatation of one or more arteries, like a string of beads. Despite the absence of a proven treatment, important steps should be taken during the acute phase: removal of precipitants such as vasoactive substances, giving the patient rest, lowering blood pressure, and controlling seizures. Drugs targeted at vasospasms, such as calcium channel inhibitors, can be considered when cerebral vasoconstriction has been assessed. In most patients, the RCVS symptoms resolve spontaneously within days or weeks. Ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke are the major complications of the syndrome. A diagnosis of RCVS can only be confirmed when the reversibility of the vasoconstriction is assessed.

Focal Cerebral Arteriopathy: The Face With Many Names

OBJECTIVE

Focal cerebral arteriopathy is a term used to describe unilateral intracranial arteriopathy involving the distal internal carotid artery and proximal segments of the middle and anterior cerebral artery. We describe the disease course of 10 pediatric arterial ischemic stroke patients with focal cerebral arteriopathy from a single quaternary-care center.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed pediatric stroke patients with focal cerebral arteriopathy without lenticulostriate collaterals treated at our institution between 2005 and 2014. Angiography was reviewed by a child neurologist and a pediatric neuroradiologist, and chart reviews were performed.

RESULTS

Ten individuals with focal cerebral arteriopathy were identified. At the time of stroke presentation, four patients were diagnosed with arterial dissection, two with moyamoya disease, one with embolic occlusion, one with hemorrhagic stroke, and two with arterial dissection or vasculitis. At last follow-up, six patients had a change in diagnosis: four were diagnosed with transient cerebral arteriopathy, two with arterial dissection, and four with moyamoya disease. Four children experienced stroke recurrence. All were administered aspirin, one was administered heparin, two were administered intravenous tissue plasminogen activator, and five underwent surgical revascularization.

CONCLUSIONS

Among pediatric stroke patients with a similar angiographic appearance, there is variable concordance between diagnosis, prognosis and treatment choice. Improved consensus-based diagnostic criteria and further research is needed to identify disease biomarkers and predictors of arterial progression.

Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome, Part 1: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Course

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome is a clinical and radiologic syndrome that represents a common presentation of a diverse group of disorders. The syndrome is characterized by thunderclap headache and reversible vasoconstriction of cerebral arteries, which can either be spontaneous or related to an exogenous trigger. The pathophysiology of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome is unknown, though alterations in cerebral vascular tone are thought to be a key underlying mechanism. The syndrome typically follows a benign course; however, reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome may result in permanent disability or death in a small minority of patients secondary to complications such as ischemic stroke or intracranial hemorrhage.

[Childhood cerebral vasculitis]

Central nervous system vasculitides are defined as the invasion of the vascular wall by blood-borne inflammatory cells. In childhood, they may be classified according to their trigger event (infectious vs. non-infectious), their temporal course (time-limited vs. chronic), and the size of the affected vessel. Diseases apparently confined to the central nervous system are also distinguished from secondary forms, associated with infection or rheumatic or systemic inflammatory disorders. Large-vessel vasculitis, the most frequent form, causes stroke and presents with acute focal deficits. MR, or more seldom contrast angiography is required for the positive diagnosis, while the child's medical history conveys the etiological diagnosis. The clinical manifestations of small-vessel vasculitis include headaches, seizures, focal deficits, cognitive decline, and behavior changes that can occur insidiously over a few weeks or a few months. The diagnosis is based on the associated clinical and biological symptoms in secondary forms and on cerebromeningeal biopsy in primary forms. Secondary forms of vasculitides are treated according to the etiology. The injury of large basal arteries is often observed after infection, especially varicella, and is also called transient focal cerebral arteriopathy (TCA) or post-varicella arteriopathy (PVA). This focal, monophasic, and time-limited entity is highly specific of childhood. There are no arguments in the current literature supporting the hypothesis that an aggressive immunomodulatory treatment would be more effective, in terms of recurrence rate or functional outcome, than aspirin alone. In contrast, the diffuse, prolonged, and aggressive course of the rare primary vasculitis of the central nervous system requires a prolonged immunosuppressive treatment. The management of associated symptoms, treatment-related adverse effects, and sequelae is based on a multidisciplinary approach.