Anal and urinary incontinence in women with obstetric anal sphincter rupture

Counseling women with obstetric anal sphincter injury - Risk of recurrence and the influence of mode of second delivery on subsequent anal incontinence - A systematic review and meta-analysis

Obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI) is a severe complication of vaginal delivery. Up to 50% of women with OASI will experience anal incontinence at long-term. However, it is uncertain whether an elective cesarean section (CS) in a subsequent pregnancy following OASI decreases the risk of anal incontinence. The aim of this study was to assess the risk of recurrent OASI in a subsequent pregnancy after a first delivery with OASI. Additionally, we wanted to evaluate the impact of recurrent OASI on the risk of anal incontinence, and to determine whether the CS was protective against anal incontinence in women with a first delivery with OASI. Literature searches were made in PubMed, Cochrane, and Embase, the last search was made in May 2024. Studies were screened and study quality was assessed using "SIGN - Methodology Checklist". Thirteen studies (including 3 020 897 women) were included in the meta-analysis on risk of recurrent OASI. OASI in the first delivery increased the risk of recurrent OASI in the second delivery fivefold compared to women without previous OASI OR 4.9 (95%CI 4.0-5.9). The overall risk of acquiring a recurrent OASI was 6.1% (95%CI 5.9%-6.2%). Five studies (including 2 330 women) were included in the meta-analysis assessing the effect of mode of subsequent delivery on anal incontinence. The risk of anal incontinence was non-significantly increased in women with a second vaginal delivery OR 1.1 (95%CI 0.9-1.4). Four studies (including 2 300 women) were included in the meta-analysis on the risk of developing anal incontinence after recurrent OASI. The risk of anal incontinence was increased in women with recurrent OASI compared to women with OASI in the first delivery and a subsequent delivery without OASI OR 1.6 (95%CI 1.3-2.0). In conclusion, we found an increased risk of recurrent OASI in the second delivery for women with a previous OASI, compared to women without previous OASI. The risk of anal incontinence was increased in women with recurrent OASI. The risk of new onset or worsening of anal incontinence was not associated with mode of the second delivery. Women with previous OASI should be informed about the increased risk of recurrence and that elective CS is not necessarily protective against anal incontinence.

4D transperineal ultrasound: feedback for good obstetric anal sphincter injuries reparation

BACKGROUND

Obstetric anal injury is the main risk factor for traumatic anal, faecal and flatus, incontinence in women in reproductive age. Its recognition and good reparation are crucial for long term outcomes.

CASE REPORT

We report a case of a nulliparous woman who reported a fourth-degree perineal tear after delivery. The obstetric anal sphincter injury was repaired and a four-dimensional transperineal ultrasound was performed after reparation and then one and three months after discharge. The woman did not experience any incontinence and no points of discontinuity were observed at tomographic ultrasound imaging reconstruction. In this case, 4D-TPUS was a tool in the obstetrician's hands to evaluate the surgical success of OASIS repair, which requires some expertise.

CONCLUSIONS

4D-TPUS ultrasound is useful and reliable during immediate puerperium and in the subsequent follow-up, giving positive feedback on the correct positioning of the stiches and on a good healing process. Further studies are needed to demonstrate this usefulness in the operators training and for improving their surgical skills.

Caesarean section and anal incontinence in women after obstetric anal sphincter injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Approximately 50% women who give birth after obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI) develop anal incontinence (AI) over their lifetime.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate current evidence for a protective benefit of planned caesarean section (CS) to prevent AI after OASI.

SEARCH STRATEGY

MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase 1974-2024, CINAHL and Cochrane to 7 February 2024 (PROSPERO CRD42022372442).

SELECTION CRITERIA

All studies reporting outcomes after OASI and a subsequent birth, by any mode.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Eighty-six of 2646 screened studies met inclusion criteria, with nine studies suitable to meta-analyse the primary outcome of 'adjusted AI' after OASI and subsequent birth. Subgroups: short-term AI, long-term AI, AI in asymptomatic women.

SECONDARY OUTCOMES

total AI, quality of life, satisfaction/regret, solid/liquid/flatal incontinence, faecal urgency, AI in women with and without subsequent birth, change in AI pre- to post- subsequent birth.

MAIN RESULTS

There was no evidence of a difference in adjusted AI after subsequent vaginal birth compared with CS after OASI across all time periods (OR = 0.92, 95% CI 0.72-1.20; 9 studies, 2104 participants, I2 = 0% p = 0.58), for subgroup analyses or secondary outcomes. There was no evidence of a difference in AI in women with or without subsequent birth (OR = 1.00 95% CI 0.65-1.54; 10 studies, 970 participants, I2 = 35% p = 0.99), or pre- to post- subsequent birth (OR = 0.79 95% CI 0.51-1.25; 13 studies, 5496 participants, I2 = 73% p = 0.31).

CONCLUSIONS

Due to low evidence quality, we are unable to determine whether planned caesarean is protective against AI after OASI. Higher quality evidence is required to guide personalised decision-making for asymptomatic women and to determine the effect of subsequent birth mode on long-term AI outcomes.

Correlation of anorectal symptoms and endoanal ultrasound findings after obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS)

INTRODUCTION

Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) predispose to development of anorectal symptoms that affect women's quality of life.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted for all women with singleton vaginal deliveries who had a primary OASIS repair and attended the Postpartum Perineal Clinic between July 1st 2017 and December 31st 2020. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Board. The purpose of this study was (1) to determine correlation between endoanal ultrasound (EAUS) findings and anorectal symptoms quantified by the St. Mark's Incontinence Score (SMIS), (2) to determine the incidence of residual anal sphincter defects, and (3) to determine the rate of clinical overdiagnosis of OASIS. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to assess correlation between anorectal symptoms and EAUS findings.

RESULTS

A total of 247 participants with clinical diagnosis of OASIS met the inclusion criteria. A 3rd-degree tear was identified in 126 (51.0%) and 4th-degree tear was identified in 30 (12.1%) participants. In participants with sonographic evidence of OASIS, there was a statistically significant weak positive correlation between the size of residual defect and SMIS for both external anal sphincter (EAS) (r = .3723, p < .0001) and internal anal sphincter (IAS) (r = .3122, p = .0180). Residual defect in the anorectal sphincter of greater than 1 hour (> 30°) in width was present in 64.3% participants with 3rd-degree tear and 86.7% participants with 4th-degree tear. The rate of overdiagnosis was 36.8%.

CONCLUSION

The size of residual defect of EAS and IAS has a weak positive correlation with anorectal symptoms, emphasizing the importance of EAUS for counselling regarding mode of subsequent delivery.

Universal Urogynecologic Consultation and Screening for Fecal Incontinence in Pregnant Women With a History of Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

IMPORTANCE

Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) predispose for the development of fecal incontinence (FI), but management of subsequent pregnancy after OASIS is controversial.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine if universal urogynecologic consultation (UUC) for pregnant women with prior OASIS is cost-effective.

STUDY DESIGN

We performed a cost-effectiveness analysis of pregnant women with a history of OASIS modeling UUC compared with no referral (usual care). We modeled the route of delivery, peripartum complications, and subsequent treatment options for FI. Probabilities and utilities were obtained from published literature. Costs using a third-party payer perspective were gathered from the Medicare physician fee schedule reimbursement data or published literature converted to 2019 U.S. dollars. Cost-effectiveness was determined using incremental cost-effectiveness ratios).

RESULTS

Our model demonstrated that UUC for pregnant patients with prior OASIS was cost-effective. Compared with usual care, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for this strategy was $19,858.32 per quality-adjusted life-year, below the willingness to pay a threshold of $50,000/quality-adjusted life-year. Universal urogynecologic consultation reduced the ultimate rate of FI from 25.33% to 22.67% and reduced patients living with untreated FI from 17.36% to 1.49%. Universal urogynecologic consultation increased the use of physical therapy by 14.14%, whereas rates of sacral neuromodulation and sphincteroplasty increased by only 2.48% and 0.58%, respectively. Universal urogynecologic consultation reduced the rate of vaginal delivery from 97.26% to 72.42%, which in turn led to a 1.15% increase in peripartum maternal complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Universal urogynecologic consultation in women with a history of OASIS is a cost-effective strategy that decreases the overall incidence of FI, increases treatment utilization for FI, and only marginally increases the risk of maternal morbidity.

Effect of the Delivery Mode on Pelvic Floor Function and Coping With Birth-Related Pain and Fear: A Prospective Survey Six Months Postpartum

Background and objective Delivering a baby is one of the most decisive events in a woman`s life and brings along psychological and physical challenges. Therefore, the question arises: which mode of delivery is the best for the woman's health and her future life? The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of the delivery mode on pelvic floor function and coping with birth-related pain and fear six months postpartum. Materials and methods A total of 200 primiparous women, who delivered during 2018-2019, were included in this prospective case-control study and were asked to fill out the "Pelvic floor questionnaire for pregnant women and women after childbirth" six months after delivery. The women were separated into the following groups: spontaneous vaginal delivery (n = 113), operative vaginal delivery (n = 44), and cesarean section (n = 41). The pelvic floor function as well as coping with birth-related pain and fear six months after delivery was compared. Results A significantly higher body mass index was found in the cesarean section group. A significantly worse bladder score was shown in the group with an operative vaginal delivery (p = 0.006). The total score of the questionnaire as well as the anal, prolapse, and sexual subscores showed no difference between the delivery modes. Concerning coping with birth-related pain and fear postpartum, significant differences could be seen between the modes of delivery (pain: p < 0.001; fear: p < 0.001). Women with spontaneous vaginal delivery showed better coping with pain and fear postpartum. Conclusion It must be highlighted that women who have had a surgical delivery, including the operative vaginal delivery and cesarean section, stated a lower coping with birth-related pain and fear. This study showed that an operative vaginal delivery has a negative influence on bladder function and the use should be well-indicated. Obstetricians should always be aware of this, as they can contribute to better coping. It is essential to give women the opportunity to talk about the delivery and individual experiences both in pre- and postnatal situations.

Vaginal Birth at Term - Part 2. Guideline of the DGGG, OEGGG and SGGG (S3-Level, AWMF Registry No. 015/083, December 2020)

Purpose This guideline aims to summarize the current state of knowledge about vaginal birth at term. The guideline focuses on definitions of the physiological stages of labor as well as differentiating between various pathological developments and conditions. It also assesses the need for intervention and the options to avoid interventions. The second part of this guideline presents recommendations and statements on care during the dilation and expulsion stages as well as during the placental/postnatal stage. Methods The German recommendations largely reproduce the recommendations of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) CG190 guideline "Intrapartum care for healthy women and babies". Other international guidelines were also consulted in individual cases when compiling this guideline. In addition, a systematic search and analysis of the literature was carried out using PICO questions where necessary, and other systematic reviews and individual studies were taken into account. For easier comprehension, the assessment tools of the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) were used to evaluate the quality of additionally consulted studies. Otherwise, the GRADE system was used for the NICE guideline, and the evidence reports of the IQWiG were used to evaluate the quality of the evidence. Recommendations Recommendations and statements were formulated based on identified evidence and/or a structured consensus.

Impact of postpartum pain and birth pain management on the pelvic floor function. A retrospective study including over 300 mothers

OBJECTIVES

It is known that pregnancy and childbirth bring biological, psychological and social changes in a woman's life. Studies regarding the pelvic floor function focus on the year after delivery, but unfortunately, long-term studies are rare. Furthermore, an association between postpartum pain and birth pain management on the pelvic floor function has rarely been examined. The aim of this study is the evaluation of the pelvic floor function years after delivery in order to detect possible risk factors.

STUDY DESIGN

This is a retrospective cohort study. All women who delivered in our hospital between 2015 and 2016 were contacted by mail between 2018 and 2019 and asked to participate. The letters included study information, declaration of consent, the "Pelvic floor questionnaire for pregnant women and women after childbirth" (PFQ), contact information and pre-paid envelopes. Questions about pain after childbirth and the management of birth related fear and pain were particularly of interest in the surveys. The interested participants were asked to return the completed declaration of consent and the questionnaire. Overall, 308 women were included in the analysis. Due to the large number of participants, different subgroups were defined in order to compare influencing factors adequately.

RESULTS

No significant association between the mode of delivery and the total score of the PFQ was found after 3-4 years in primiparous women (p = 0.688). Our study also showed that recorded pain after childbirth and insufficient pain and fear management after childbirth had a negative impact on the pelvic floor function (total scores: pain after childbirth p = 0.00; no pain management p = 0.04; no fear management p = 0.021).

CONCLUSION

No association was found between delivery mode and pelvic floor function in primiparous women three to four years after childbirth. On the other hand, a negative impact of birth related pain and fears on the pelvic floor function years after delivery was significant. Therefore, these revealing findings should certainly be considered in postpartum management.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injuries: New Evidence and Perspectives

Perineal injury during childbirth is a common event with important morbidity associated in particular with third-and-fourth degree perineal tears (also referred to as obstetric anal sphincter injuries-OASIS). Early diagnosis of these damages is mandatory to define a prompt therapeutic strategy and thus avoid the development of late-onset consequences, such as faecal incontinence. For this purpose, various diagnostic exams can be performed after a thorough clinical examination. The management of OASIS includes several measures and should be individualized according to the timing and features of the clinical presentation.

Risk factors for obstetric anal sphincter injury among parous women

PURPOSE

Nulliparity and operative vaginal delivery are established risk factor for obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI). However, risk factors for OASIS occurrence among parous women delivering vaginally are not well-established. We aimed to study the risk factors for OASI occurrence among parous women.

METHODS

A retrospective study including all parous women who delivered vaginally at term during 2011-2019 at a university hospital. Deliveries of parous women with OASI were compared to deliveries without OASI. The risk factors associated with OASI were investigated.

RESULTS

Overall, 35,397 women were included in the study with an OASI rate of 0.4% (n = 144). A higher rate of only one previous vaginal delivery was noted in the OASI group (78.5% vs. 46.4%, OR [95% CI] 4.20, 2.82-6.25, p < 0.001). The rate of vacuum-assisted deliveries was comparable between the study groups. The median birth weight was higher among the OASI group (3566 vs. 3300 g, p < 0.001), as was the rate of macrosomic neonates (19.4% vs. 5.5%, OR [95% CI] 4.15, 2.74-6.29, p < 0.001). On multivariate logistic regression analysis, only two factors were independently positively associated with the occurrence of OASI: a history of only one previous vaginal delivery (adjusted OR [95% CI] 4.34, 2.90-6.49, p = 0.001), and neonatal birth-weight (for each 500 g increment) (adjusted OR [95% CI] 2.51, 1.84-3.44, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Among parous women, the only factors found to be independently positively associated with OASI were the order of parity and neonatal birth-weight. Vacuum-assisted delivery was not associated with an increased risk of OASI among parous women.

Assessing Anorectal Function in Constipation and Fecal Incontinence

Constipation and fecal incontinence are commonly encountered complaints in the gastrointestinal clinic. Assessment of anorectal function includes comprehensive history, rectal examination, and prospective stool diary or electronic App diary that accurately captures bowel symptoms, evaluation of severity, and quality of life of measure. Evaluation of a suspected patient with dyssynergic constipation includes anorectal manometry, balloon expulsion test, and defecography. Investigation of a suspected patient with fecal incontinence includes high-resolution anorectal manometry; anal ultrasound or MRI; and neurophysiology tests, such as translumbosacral anorectal magnetic stimulation or pudendal nerve latency. This article provides an approach to the assessment of anorectal function.

Is Mode of Delivery Associated With Sexual Response? A Pilot Study of Genital and Subjective Sexual Arousal in Primiparous Women With Vaginal or Cesarean Section Births

INTRODUCTION

Although postpartum sexual concerns are common, limited data exist on postpartum sexual response. Furthermore, the physiological process of vaginal birth may negatively impact genital response compared with unlabored cesarean section (C-section), but this hypothesis has yet to be tested.

AIM

To (i) compare genital and subjective sexual response and sexual concordance by mode of delivery with inclusion of a control group, (ii) compare groups on self-reported sexual function over the past month, (iii) examine the relationship between laboratory measurement of sexual response and self-reported sexual function, and (iv) investigate association between obstetrical factors and breastfeeding and between sexual response and self-reported sexual function.

METHODS

3 groups of cisgender women were recruited from the community: primiparous women who delivered via vaginal birth within the past 2 years (VB group; n = 16), primiparous women who delivered via unlabored C-section within the past 2 years (CS group, n = 15), and age-matched nulliparous women (NP group, n = 18). Laser Doppler imaging was used to assess genital response while participants watched a neutral and erotic film.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome measures were change in flux units from neural to erotic video as a measure of genital response, subjective sexual arousal rated continuously throughout films, perceived genital response rated after films, and Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI).

RESULTS

Women in the VB group had significantly lower change in flux units than women in the CS (P = .005, d = 1.39) and NP (P < .001, d = 1.80) groups. Groups did not differ on their subjective indices of sexual response or in sexual concordance. Women in both postpartum groups reported lower FSFI scores than women in the NP group. No relationship was determined between FSFI scores and sexual response in the laboratory. Results suggested that genital trauma and breastfeeding may negatively impact FSFI scores, but they were not related to genital response or subjective sexual arousal as measured in the laboratory.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Results underscore the importance of balancing objective and subjective indices of sexual response and function, especially considering the biopsychosocial nature of postpartum sexuality.

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS

The present study is the first to apply modern sexual psychophysiological methodology to the study of postpartum sexuality. Cross-sectional methodology limits the ability to make causal inferences, and the strict inclusion criteria limits generalizability.

CONCLUSION

Physiological changes as a result of labor and delivery may have a detrimental impact on genital response; however, these physiological differences may not impact women's subjective experience of postpartum sexuality. Cappell J, Bouchard KN, Chamberlain SM, et al. Is Mode of Delivery Associated With Sexual Response? A Pilot Study of Genital and Subjective Sexual Arousal in Primiparous Women With Vaginal or Cesarean Section Births. J Sex Med 2020; 17:257-272.

Choice of mode of delivery in a subsequent pregnancy after OASI: a survey among Dutch gynecologists

Introduction and hypothesis

National and international guidelines do not provide clear recommendations on the mode of delivery in a subsequent pregnancy after obstetric anal sphincter injury (OASI). The aim of this study was to investigate the opinion of gynecologists in The Netherlands on this choice and the extent to which this choice is affected by the gynecologist’s characteristics.

Methods

Of 973 gynecologists sent a questionnaire seeking their opinion on the mode of delivery in 16 different case descriptions, 234 (24%) responded. Factors influencing the opinion of the respondents on the mode of delivery, the presence of anal symptoms, the degree of OASI and the characteristics of the respondents were analyzed by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis.

Results

Recommendations on the mode of delivery in a subsequent pregnancy after OASI showed considerable variation. The recommendations depended on (previous) symptoms and the degree of OASI. For gynecologists who based their recommendations on endoanal ultrasonography outcomes (7–20% depending on the case), the degree of OASI and severity of (previous) symptoms were less important. Gynecologists basing their recommendations on endoanal ultrasonography recommended a primary cesarean section less often. Gynecologist’s characteristics (including years of experience, type of hospital and subspecialty) had a small effect on their recommendations on the mode of delivery.

Conclusions

Due to lack of evidence, recommendations of gynecologists in The Netherlands on the mode of delivery in a subsequent pregnancy after OASI vary widely and depend on (previous) symptoms and the degree of OASI. Gynecologists who based their recommendations on endoanal ultrasonography outcomes recommended cesarean section less often.

The impact of anal sphincter injury on perceived body image

OBJECTIVE

Obstetric anal sphincter injury is common but the effect on body image is unreported. The aim of this study was to explore patient perceived changes in body image and other psychological aspects in women attending a perineal follow-up clinic.

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective study analysed women's responses to a self-reported questionnaire. Consecutive women with anal sphincter injury who attended a United Kingdom Maternity Hospital perineal follow-up clinic between January 1999 and January 2012 were identified and the records obtained and reviewed. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to examine variables influencing self-reported change in body image.

RESULTS

Questionnaires and operation notes were analysed from 422 women who attended at a median of four months after delivery. 222 (53%) reported a change in body image with 80 (19%) reporting lower self-esteem and 75 (18%) a change in their personality due to the change in body image. 248 (59%) perceived an anatomical change due to the delivery. Factors associated with increased likelihood of reporting a change in body image were reporting a perceived change in anatomy due to the delivery, adjusted OR 6.11 (3.56-10.49), anal incontinence, OR 1.97 (1.16-3.36), and delivery by forceps, OR 2.59 (1.23-5.43).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to quantify body image changes in women after anal sphincter injury sustained in childbirth. These were found to be very common, affecting up to 50% of women. The study has several limitations but it does highlight the significant psychosocial problems of negative self-esteem and personality changes associated with a perceived change in body image that has not previously been reported. It also outlines the further research questions that need to be addressed.

Obstetrical Anal Sphincter Injuries (OASIS): Prevention, Recognition, and Repair

OBJECTIVE

To review the evidence relating to obstetrical anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) with respect to diagnosis, repair techniques and outcomes. To formulate recommendations as to patient counselling regarding route of delivery for subsequent pregnancy after OASIS.

OPTIONS

Obstetrical care providers caring for women with OASIS have the option of repairing the anal sphincter using end-to-end or overlapping techniques. They may also be involved in counselling women with prior OASIS regarding the route of delivery for future pregnancies.

OUTCOMES

The outcome measured is anal continence following primary OASIS repair and after subsequent childbirth.

EVIDENCE

Published literature was retrieved through searches of Medline, EMBASE, and The Cochrane Library in May 2011 using appropriate controlled vocabulary (e.g., anal canal, obstetrics, obstetric labour complication, pregnancy complication, treatment outcome, surgery, quality of life) and key words (obstetrical anal sphincter injur*, anus sphincter, anus injury, delivery, obstetrical care, surgery, suturing method, overlap, end-to-end, feces incontinence). Results were restricted to systematic reviews, randomized control trials/controlled clinical trials, and observational. There were no date or language restrictions. Searches were updated on a regular basis and incorporated in the guideline to September 2014. Grey (unpublished) literature was identified through searching the websites of health technology assessment and health technology-related agencies, clinical practice guideline collections, clinical trial registries, and national and international medical specialty societies.

VALUES

The quality of evidence in this document was rated using the criteria described in the Report of the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care (Table 1).

BENEFITS, HARMS, AND COSTS

Benefits from implementation of these guidelines include: improved diagnosis of OASIS, optimal functional outcomes following repair, and evidence-based counselling of women for future childbirth.

An audit of clinician compliance with best practice recommendations to repair severe obstetric anal sphincter injuries

CONTEXT

Obstetric anal sphincter injuries occur uncommonly in Caribbean practice but are accompanied by substantial morbidity.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate clinicians' compliance with management guidelines at a national referral hospital in Jamaica.

DESIGN

Retrospective review of the records of all consecutive obstetric patients with anal sphincter injuries between November 1, 2007, and December 30, 2012.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary end point was the completion of each of 8 tasks from existing management guidelines: 1) interdisciplinary consultation, 2) perineal examination with the patient under anesthesia, 3) injury repair in the operating room, 4) prophylactic antibiotics at induction, 5) repair by an experienced clinician, 6) repair method appropriate for injury grade, 7) slowly absorbable suture chosen for sphincter repair, and 8) rapidly absorbable suture for mucosal repair. We quantified clinician compliance with the guidelines by assigning a score of 1 for each task completed and 0 for an incomplete task. Individual task scores were summed. Clinicians were considered compliant when their overall score was above 6.

RESULTS

Twenty-six women (mean age = 27 years; standard deviation = 5.78 years) had obstetric anal sphincter injuries. Nine cases (34.6%) earned clinician compliance scores above 6, and 17 (65.4%) had scores of 6 or below. Experienced clinicians repaired all the injuries in this study-the only task for which compliance was 100%.

CONCLUSION

Despite attempts at improving therapeutic outcomes by creating tailored guidelines for repair of obstetric anal sphincter injuries, there is a serious barrier to success because 65% of senior clinicians were noncompliant.

Outcome of repair of obstetric anal sphincter injuries after three years

Objective

To prospectively assess change in bowel symptoms and quality of life (QoL) approximately 3 years after primary repair of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS).

Methods

Between July 2002 and December 2007 women who attended the perineal clinic at Croydon University Hospital, UK, 9 weeks following primary repair of OASIS were asked to complete the Manchester Health Questionnaire and a questionnaire to obtain a St Mark incontinence score. All women had endoanal scans at this visit. In June 2008 all women were asked to complete the questionnaires again.

Results

Of 344 patients who responded to the questionnaires and were included in the analysis, long-term symptoms of fecal urgency, flatus incontinence, and fecal incontinence occurred in 62 (18.0%), 52 (15.1%), and 36 (10.5%), respectively. Overall, there was a significant improvement in fecal urgency (P < 0.001) and flatus incontinence (P < 0.001) from 9 weeks to 3 years. Of 31 women with fecal incontinence symptoms at early follow-up, 28 were asymptomatic at 3 years. However, 33 women developed de novo symptoms. The only predictors of fecal incontinence at 3 years were fecal urgency at 9 weeks (OR 4.65; 95% CI, 1.38–15.70) and a higher St Mark score (OR 1.40; 95% CI, 1.09–1.80).

Conclusion

Following primary repair of OASIS, the majority of symptoms and QoL significantly improve, unless there is a persistent anal sphincter defect. This highlights the importance of adequate repair.

Translumbar and transsacral magnetic neurostimulation for the assessment of neuropathy in fecal incontinence

BACKGROUND

Neurologic dysfunction causes fecal incontinence, but current techniques for its assessment are limited and controversial.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this work was to investigate spino-rectal and spino-anal motor-evoked potentials simultaneously using lumbar and sacral magnetic stimulation in subjects with fecal incontinence and healthy subjects and to compare motor-evoked potentials and pudendal nerve terminal motor latency in subjects with fecal incontinence.

DESIGN

This was a prospective, observational study.

SETTINGS

The study took place in 2 tertiary care centers.

PATIENTS

Subjects included adults with fecal incontinence and healthy subjects.

INTERVENTIONS

Translumbar and transsacral magnetic stimulations were performed bilaterally by applying a magnetic coil to the lumbar and sacral regions in 50 subjects with fecal incontinence (1 or more episodes per week) and 20 healthy subjects. Both motor-evoked potentials and pudendal nerve terminal motor latency were assessed in 30 subjects with fecal incontinence. Stimulation-induced, motor-evoked potentials were recorded simultaneously from the rectum and anus with 2 pairs of bipolar ring electrodes.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Latency and amplitude of motor-evoked potentials after lumbosacral magnetic stimulation and agreement with pudendal nerve terminal motor latency were measured.

RESULTS

When compared with control subjects, 1 or more lumbo-anal, lumbo-rectal, sacro-anal, or sacro-rectal motor-evoked potentials were significantly prolonged (p < 0.01) and were abnormal in 44 (88%) of 50 subjects with fecal incontinence. Positive agreement between abnormal motor-evoked potentials and pudendal nerve terminal motor latency was 63%, whereas negative agreement was 13%. Motor-evoked potentials were abnormal in more (p < 0.05) subjects with fecal incontinence than pudendal nerve terminal motor latency, in 26 (87%) of 30 versus 19 (63%) of 30, and in 24% of subjects with normal pudendal nerve terminal motor latency. There were no adverse events.

LIMITATIONS

Anal EMG was not performed.

CONCLUSIONS

Translumbar and transsacral magnetic stimulation-induced, motor-evoked potentials provide objective evidence for rectal or anal neuropathy in subjects with fecal incontinence and could be useful. The test was superior to pudendal nerve terminal motor latency and appears to be safe and well tolerated.

What's New in the Toolbox for Constipation and Fecal Incontinence?

Constipation and fecal incontinence (FI) are common complaints predominantly affecting the elderly and women. They are associated with significant morbidity and high healthcare costs. The causes are often multi-factorial and overlapping. With the advent of new technologies, we have a better understanding of their underlying pathophysiology which may involve disruption at any levels along the gut-brain-microbiota axis. Initial approach to management should always be the exclusion of secondary causes. Mild symptoms can be approached with conservative measures that may include dietary modifications, exercise, and medications. New prokinetics (e.g., prucalopride) and secretagogues (e.g., lubiprostone and linaclotide) are effective and safe in constipation. Biofeedback is the treatment of choice for dyssynergic defecation. Refractory constipation may respond to neuromodulation therapy with colectomy as the last resort especially for slow-transit constipation of neuropathic origin. Likewise, in refractory FI, less invasive approach can be tried first before progressing to more invasive surgical approach. Injectable bulking agents, sacral nerve stimulation, and SECCA procedure have modest efficacy but safe and less invasive. Surgery has equivocal efficacy but there are promising new techniques including dynamic graciloplasty, artificial bowel sphincter, and magnetic anal sphincter. Despite being challenging, there are no short of alternatives in our toolbox for the management of constipation and FI.

Value of evoked potential in study of functional bowel disorders

In recent years, the development of neurogastroenterology and the application of neurophysiologic examinations have gradually revealed the association of gastrointestinal activity with cortical activity through the efferent and afferent pathways. The state of nerve conduction pathway between the brain and gastrointestinal tract is closely related with specific functions of the anus and rectum. Scholars have put forward the "brain gut axis" and "brain gut interaction" theories to explain the bidirectional interaction between the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. Evoked potentials have an important role in the diagnosis and research of electrophysiological changes in various parts of the neural system, which provides practical information for the study of the brain-gut pathway, promotes the diagnosis and understanding of diseases related to the brain-gut axis abnormalities, and provides the basis for developing new treatment methods. In this paper, we summarize the roles of various evoked potential techniques in the study of functional bowel disorders.

Severe Perineal Lacerations in Obstetric Practice: The Effect of Institutional Practice Guidelines on Repair Failures in a Single Centre

Background. There is a high incidence of failure after repair of severe perineal lacerations (SPLs). A tertiary referral hospital in the Caribbean introduced guidelines in an attempt to improve outcomes. We performed an audit of SPL repairs at this centre in an attempt to determine the effect on repair failure. Methods. All patients with SPL repairs between November 1, 2007, and December 30, 2012, were identified. The primary aim was to determine the incidence of failed repairs (wound dehiscence, anal sphincter disruption, rectovaginal fistula, and/or faecal incontinence). The Cleveland Clinic Incontinence Score (CCIS) was used to assess continence at discharge and 24 weeks after repair. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 12. Results. There were 8108 vaginal deliveries, 23 third-degree injuries, and 3 fourth-degree injuries. Three patients experienced a repair failure. Notably, 69% of surgeons chose an inappropriate suture for sphincter repair. Conclusions. Experienced operators are performing repairs, but there is a high prevalence of inappropriate suture choice for repairs. A targeted educational campaign may be necessary to remind clinicians of the best practice in repair techniques.

Methods of repair for obstetric anal sphincter injury

BACKGROUND

Anal sphincter injury during childbirth - obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) - are associated with significant maternal morbidity including perineal pain, dyspareunia (painful sexual intercourse) and anal incontinence, which can lead to psychological and physical sequelae. Many women do not seek medical attention because of embarrassment. The two recognised methods for the repair of damaged external anal sphincter (EAS) are end-to-end (approximation) repair and overlap repair.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the effectiveness of overlap repair versus end-to-end repair following OASIS in reducing subsequent anal incontinence, perineal pain, dyspareunia and improving quality of life.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (30 September 2013) and reference lists of retrieved studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing different techniques of immediate primary repair of EAS following OASIS.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Trial quality was assessed independently by all authors.

MAIN RESULTS

Six eligible trials, of variable quality, involving 588 women, were included. There was considerable heterogeneity in the outcome measures, time points and reported results. Meta-analyses showed that there was no statistically significant difference in perineal pain (risk ratio (RR) 0.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.00 to 1.45, one trial, 52 women), dyspareunia (average RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.48 to 1.24, two trials, 151 women), flatus incontinence (average RR 1.14, 95% CI 0.58 to 2.23, three trials, 256 women) between the two repair techniques at 12 months. However, it showed a statistically significant lower incidence of faecal urgency (RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.86, one trial, 52 women), and lower anal incontinence score (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.70, 95% CI -1.26 to -0.14, one trial, 52 women) in the overlap group. The overlap technique was also associated with a statistically significant lower risk of deterioration of anal incontinence symptoms over 12 months (RR 0.26, 95% CI 0.09 to 0.79, one trial, 41 women). There was no significant difference in quality of life. At 36 months follow-up, there was no difference in flatus incontinence (average RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.63 to 1.99, one trial, 68 women) or faecal incontinence (average RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.34 to 2.98, one trial, 68 women).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The data available show that at one-year follow-up, immediate primary overlap repair of the external anal sphincter compared with immediate primary end-to-end repair appears to be associated with lower risks of developing faecal urgency and anal incontinence symptoms. At the end of 36 months there appears to be no difference in flatus or faecal incontinence between the two techniques. However, since this evidence is based on only two small trials, more research evidence is needed in order to confirm or refute these findings.

Outcome of primary repair of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS): does the grade of tear matter?

OBJECTIVES

To assess risk factors and outcome of different grades of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) after primary repair, and to assess the relationship between outcome of anal sphincter defects as diagnosed by endoanal ultrasound.

METHODS

We included 531 consecutive women (of which eight were tertiary referrals) who had sustained OASIS, underwent primary sphincter repair and were followed up between July 2002 and July 2008. At follow-up, defecatory symptoms and bowel-related quality of life (QoL) were evaluated and anal manometry and endoanal ultrasound were performed.

RESULTS

The mean time of follow-up was 9 (SD, 5.9) weeks after delivery. Compared with women with a minor (Grade 3a/3b) tear, those with a major (Grade 3c/4) one had a significantly poorer outcome (P < 0.05) with respect to the development of defecatory symptoms and associated QoL as well as anal manometry. Women with major tears were significantly more likely to have an endosonographic isolated internal anal sphincter (IAS) or combined IAS and external anal sphincter (EAS) defect. Combined defects were associated with a higher risk of loose fecal incontinence and lower anal canal pressures. Use of epidural analgesia was the only independent factor predicting a major tear.

CONCLUSIONS

The greater likelihood of endosonographic anal sphincter defects in women with major tears compared with minor tears is the probable cause of the less favorable outcome of primary repair. Endosonographic combined defects are associated with poorer outcome and it is therefore important to identify the full extent of injury at delivery in women who sustain OASIS, and to pay particular attention to repair of IAS defects.

Postpartum pelvic floor trauma

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There is strong epidemiological evidence linking vaginal childbirth and the development of postpartum incontinence and prolapse. This article examines possible mechanisms of pelvic floor damage related to delivery and their possible consequences.

RECENT FINDINGS

Histology, imaging and physiology studies have revealed that vaginal delivery results in direct pelvic muscle trauma, disruption of fascial supports and pudendal nerve injury.

SUMMARY

Epidemiology studies implicate parity and childbirth in the development of incontinence and prolapse; however, despite imaging and functional studies revealing damage to the pelvic floor muscles, nerves and fascial supports, it is unclear what the clinical significance of these findings is. In addition, the effect of mode of delivery is uncertain, and although cesarean section reduces the risk of pelvic floor trauma, it is not entirely protective. Further research is required into the effect of pregnancy on pelvic floor dysfunction and the effect of mode of delivery.

Defects on endoanal ultrasound and anal incontinence after primary repair of fourth-degree anal sphincter rupture: a study of the anal sphincter complex and puborectal muscle

OBJECTIVES

To perform three-dimensional endoanal ultrasound (EAUS) after primary repair of fourth-degree anal sphincter rupture (ASR) and correlate the sonographic defects with anal incontinence (AI); to measure the axial and sagittal thickness and angle of the puborectal muscle (PRM) as well as the length of the anal canal, and then correlate these measures with AI; and to assess the interobserver measurement agreement between an inexperienced and an experienced sonologist.

METHODS

EAUS was offered to 84 consecutive women, who were asked to answer a validated questionnaire after fourth-degree ASR. AI was graded according to the Wexner score and EAUS defects were graded according to the Starck score.

RESULTS

Sixty-one women (73%) answered the questionnaire. The median (range) follow-up time was 5.1 (1.3-8.7) years. Thirty-three (54%) of these women underwent EAUS and were included in the study. There was no difference in the incontinence scores between women who underwent EAUS and those who did not. Eleven of the women who underwent EAUS (33%) were continent, 22 women (67%) had flatus incontinence at least once a month, of whom 12 also had incontinence for liquid stool and two had incontinence for solid stool. The median Wexner score was 2 (range, 0-12). Five of the patients (15%) had no ultrasound defects. All of the patients with Wexner scores > or = 4 had a Starck score of > or = 10. No association between ultrasound defects and AI was demonstrated, however, the angle of the PRM and parity were associated with Starck score. No clear association between the measurements of the PRM and AI was shown. The experienced observer detected more of the small defects than did the inexperienced observer.

CONCLUSION

In a 1-9-year follow-up period after primary suture of fourth-degree ASR, the frequency of AI was high, at 67%. No clear association was seen between AI and sphincter defects detected on ultrasonography. There was an association between the angle of the PRM and the extent of ultrasound defects.

Defining an at-risk population for obstetric anal sphincter laceration

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to calculate the number of cesarean deliveries needed to prevent 1 case of obstetric anal sphincter laceration associated with operative vaginal delivery in an at-risk cohort.

STUDY DESIGN

An institutional, computerized database was used to analyze women with obstructed labor who could have been managed by either operative vaginal or cesarean delivery from September 2006 to March 2008. Women with 1 or more of the following diagnoses comprised the cohort: cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD), arrest of descent, maternal exhaustion, and fetal distress.

RESULTS

Fifty (23.9%) out of a total of 209 women managed by operative vaginal delivery experienced an anal sphincter laceration compared to none of 254 women in the cesarean delivery group (P < .0001). The ARR therefore was 23.9% (95% confidence interval, 18.1-29.7) and the NNT was 4.2 (95% confidence interval, 3.4-5.5).

CONCLUSION

Five cesarean deliveries are needed to prevent 1 anal sphincter laceration associated with operative vaginal delivery in this cohort.

Management of third degree perineal tear and choice of mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies

This study evaluates the management of third/fourth-degree obstetric tears and choice of mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies amongst obstetricians practising in Ireland. Of the 185 obstetricians who were sent questionnaires 133 replied, giving a response rate of 72%. The consultant obstetricians were significantly more likely to suture third-degree tears in the labour ward than the non-consultant counterpart, P=0.04. There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups on the repair technique, P=0.397. The non-consultant obstetricians were significantly more likely to prescribe laxatives and diclofenac (Volterol) after repair of third/fourth-degree tears. There were significant differences between the two groups of obstetricians in terms of choice of mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies, and the appropriate person to conduct labour, P=0.044 and 0.017, respectively. Instrumental intervention and use of episiotomies were similar in the two groups. Our study also shows that Fellows and Members of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG) are not adhering to the guidelines on the repair of third/fourth-degree tears. We conclude that there is variation in the management of third-degree obstetric tears and choice of mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies among the obstetricians.

Prevalence and risk factors for urinary and fecal incontinence four months after vaginal delivery

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of and risk factors for urinary and fecal incontinence four months after vaginal delivery.

METHODS

All patients who had vaginal deliveries at a tertiary care hospital over a three-month period were approached during their postpartum hospital stay regarding participation in the study. Participants underwent a telephone interview at four months after their delivery to determine the presence and type of any incontinence.

RESULTS

Of 632 patients, 145 (23%) had stress incontinence, 77 (12%) had urge incontinence, 181 (29%) had any urinary incontinence and 23 (4%) had fecal incontinence. In univariate analysis, stress incontinence was found to be increased in patients>or=30 years of age (26.2%) compared with patients<30 years of age (19.3%) (RR 1.4; 95% CI 1.0-1.8, P=0.05). Urge incontinence was increased in patients who had a forceps delivery (21%) compared with no forceps delivery (9%) (RR 2.2; 95% CI 1.4-3.6, P=0.005), an episiotomy (32.4%) compared with no episiotomy (18.7%) (RR 1.9; 95% CI 1.2-2.9, P<0.01) and a longer second stage of labour (108 min vs. 77 min, P=0.01). The prevalence of any urinary incontinence was increased with forceps delivery (15.5%) compared with no forceps delivery (8.7%) (RR 1.5; 95% CI 1.1-2.1, P=0.01) and maternal age of >or=30 years (34.1%) compared to <30 years (23.5%) (RR 1.5; 95% CI 1.1-1.9, P=0.003). In multivariate analysis, the two variables that remained significant for any urinary incontinence were maternal age>or=30 years (P<0.01) and forceps delivery (P<0.01). There were no identified risk factors for fecal incontinence.

CONCLUSION

Urinary incontinence is common in women at four months post partum. Fecal incontinence is less common. Maternal age and forceps assisted delivery were risk factors for urinary incontinence.

[Proposal for a new consensus classification for faecal incontinence]

Due to the complexities of the mechanisms involved in incontinence, there are many potential causes for this disorder. The causes of incontinence and the grouping of patients according to aetiological factors are described in the literature in various forms, without there being a consensus as such. Therefore, the objective of this review is to propose a new classification of faecal incontinence to the scientific community, which will enable criteria to be unified, which should lead to an improvement in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with faecal incontinence. It is an aetiopathogenic classification that can be obtained from the clinical history of the patient along with an endoanal ultrasound.

Intraoperative mapping of anal and perineal anatomy using an electrostimulator

OBJECTIVE

To present a new technique to identify perineal and anal sphincter anatomy using an electrostimulator in order to facilitate anatomical repair.

METHODS

A neglected perineal tear was repaired using the technique described.

RESULTS

The patient's St Mark's incontinence score improved from 22 out of 24 to 6 out of 24.

CONCLUSIONS

This technique may be practical and useful for intraoperative mapping of distorted perineal and anal anatomy to assist surgical repair.

Diagnosis and management of obstetric anal sphincter injury

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to outline optimum practice in diagnosis and management of obstetric anal sphincter injury. The review focuses briefly on prevention of the problem before outlining diagnosis of sphincter injury as well as immediate and long-term management of patients who have sustained such injuries.

RECENT FINDINGS

Increasing vigilance is vital in order that sphincter injury is not overlooked; immediate radiological assessment may play a role in diagnosis. Optimum anal sphincter repair should be followed by oral laxative administration to maintain sphincter integrity. Biofeedback physiotherapy and sacral nerve stimulation show great promise in treatment of persistent symptoms. Optimum mode of delivery in future pregnancies is not clearly defined, and decisions should be individualized.

SUMMARY

Because obstetric injury to the anal sphincter mechanism cannot always be prevented, efforts must focus on limiting its occurrence, documenting its severity and providing optimum therapy to women who have sustained it. Management includes routine postnatal review of at-risk women and antenatal assessment in future pregnancies to limit deterioration in continence after future deliveries.

Neurophysiological testing in anorectal disorders

Neurophysiological tests of anorectal function can provide useful information regarding the integrity of neuronal innervation, as well as neuromuscular function. This information can give insights regarding the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to several disorders of anorectal function, particularly fecal incontinence, pelvic floor disorders and dyssynergic defecation. Currently, several tests are available for the neurophysiological evaluation of anorectal function. These tests are mostly performed on patients referred to tertiary care centers, either following negative evaluations or when there is lack of response to conventional therapy. Judicious use of these tests can reveal significant and new understanding of the underlying mechanism(s) that could pave the way for better management of these disorders. In addition, these techniques are complementary to other modalities of investigation, such as pelvic floor imaging. The most commonly performed neurophysiological tests, along with their indications and clinical utility are discussed. Several novel techniques are evolving that may reveal new information on brain-gut interactions.

The prevalence of occult obstetric anal sphincter injury following childbirth--literature review

OBJECTIVE

To calculate the published prevalence of ultrasound-detected occult anal sphincter damage associated with different modes of delivery.

METHODS

A search of the English language literature for articles using keywords describing the prevalence of ultrasound-diagnosed anal sphincter injury following childbirth. The weighted mean prevalence of occult anal sphincter injury was calculated in the following groups: (1) primiparous women (unselected); (2) primiparous women after an unassisted normal vaginal delivery; (3) multiparous women (unselected); (4) following forceps delivery; (5) following ventouse delivery; (6) following cesarean section.

RESULTS

Nineteen articles described ultrasound-diagnosed occult anal sphincter injury. The prevalence in unselected primiparous women (excluding cesarean section) was 29.2% (288/983). After unassisted vaginal delivery in primiparae the prevalence was 21.7% (74/341). The incidence in multiparous women (unselected) is 32.3% (107/331); following forceps delivery 49.1% (131/267) and with ventouse delivery it is 45.2% (66/146). Only one woman (in 173 cases) had anal sphincter injury following cesarean section.

CONCLUSIONS

After a review of the literature, occult anal sphincter injury is mostly associated with the first vaginal delivery and is particularly high following instrumental deliveries. Ventouse is less traumatic than forceps. Cesarean section is protective to the anal sphincter.