Ensuring effective Essential Obstetric Care in resource poor settings

Quality indicators of public maternity units in the governorate of Monastir (Tunisia)

INTRODUCTION

Increasing access to healthcare for expectant mothers is a national goal. In Monastir, Tunisia, some Peripheral Maternity Units (PMUs) required assessment. Our goals were to describe the delivery activities in MUs (maternity units) and to assess whether some of PMUs need to have their activities replaced.

METHOD

We analyzed aggregate data of deliveries in Monastir from 2015 to 2020. The gouvernorate's seven public MUs were included. Only the morning activity was allotted for obstetricians and gynecologists, in RMUs 1 and 2, whereas they were not available in all PMUs. Data was gathered from the reports of the National Perinatal Program. Both the availability of Comprehensive Essential Obstetric Care (CEOC) and Basic Essential Obstetric Care (BEOC) were calculated. Trends were calculated using Joinpoint software. The Annual Percent Change (APC) was calculated.

RESULTS

The number of births decreased from 2015 to 2020 (APC= -4.3%: 95%CI : -6; -2.4; p = 0.003). The largest significant decreases in APCs of deliveries were reported in PMU 2 (APC = -12.6% (95%CI : -20; -4.4; p = 0.014), in PMU 3 (APC = -29.3% (95%CI : -36.5; -21.4; p = 0.001), and in PMU 4 (APC = -32.9% (95%CI: -49.1; -11.5); p = 0.016). If PMU 3 and 4 were no longer operating as maternity facilities, BEOC and CEOC standards would still be adequat. For accessibility, both PMU 3 and PMU 2 are accessible from PMU 4 and PMU 1, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnant women prefer to give birth in obstetric services with ability to perform emergency caesarean at the expense of PMU. Nowadays, it appears that accessibility is less important than the presence of qualified human resources when a pregnant woman choose a maternity hospital.

Modified WHO Partograph in Labour Room: A Quality Improvement Initiative to Find Out Concerns, Challenges and Solutions

Every day many women die in pregnancy and childbirth, most of which are preventable. Regular and timely labour monitoring by partograph is of utmost importance. The aim of this study was to increase partograph use by residents in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology in all eligible women from existing 25% to 90% over six months through a quality improvement (QI) process. A team of six members including consultants, residents, and staff nurses did a root cause analysis through fishbone analysis to identify why the rate of use of partograph is only 25% of all cases. Many strategies were implemented through Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles for the cause identified. The interventions were allocation of triage area for timely identification of eligible women in the active phase of labour, training of residents, involving interns and nurses for use in shortage of staff, making departmental written policy, and assigning checking authority, to shift patients with attached partograph only; partograph has to be attached in the file right from the beginning when sisters make women admission file. These were done in five PDSA cycles and the outcome was measured by a control chart. The rate of partograph use increased from 25% to 92% over the study period of six months from September 2020 to February 2021. Regular audits were conducted to maintain the results. It can thus be concluded that partograph appears easy to implement and inexpensive, but its use still has enormous difficulties. But a QI approach can help in improving adherence to partograph use, by solving the root cause of the concern and challenges.

Tracking pregnant women displacements in Sao Paulo, Brazil: a complex systems approach to regionalization through the emergence of patterns

BACKGROUND

The healthcare system can be understood as the dynamic result of the interaction of hospitals, patients, providers, and government configuring a complex network of reciprocal influences. In order to better understand such a complex system, the analysis must include characteristics that are feasible to be studied in order to redesign its functioning. The analysis of the emergent patterns of pregnant women flows crossing municipal borders for birth-related hospitalizations in a region of São Paulo, Brazil, allowed to examine the functionality of the regional division in the state using a complex systems approach and to propose answers to the dilemma of concentration vs. distribution of maternal care regional services in the context of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).

METHODS

Cross-sectional research of the areas of influence of hospitals using spatial interaction methods, recording the points of origin and destination of the patients and exploring the emergent patterns of displacement.

RESULTS

The resulting functional region is broader than the limits established in the legal provisions, verifying that 85% of patients move to hospitals with high technology to perform normal deliveries and cesarean sections. The region has high independence rates and behaves as a "service exporter." Patients going to centrally located hospitals travel twice as long as patients who receive care in other municipalities even when the patients' conditions do not demand technologically sophisticated services. The effects of regulation and the agents' preferences reinforce the tendency to refer patients to centrally located hospitals.

CONCLUSIONS

Displacement of patients during delivery may affect indicators of maternal and perinatal health. The emergent pattern of movements allowed examining the contradiction between wider deployments of services versus concentration of highly specialized resources in a few places. The study shows the potential of this type of analysis applied to other type of patients' flows, such as cancer or specialized surgery, as tools to guide the regionalization of the Brazilian Health System.

Practical approaches to managing postpartum haemorrhage with limited resources

Mortality from postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is higher in low resource settings due to increased incidence, higher case fatality rates and poor general health of the population. The challenges of managing PPH with limited resources are presented. Feasible interventions for preventing and treating PPH for home births are described. Given that maternity care is organised around levels of care in low resource settings, guidance is provided for what measures can be performed to manage PPH at different levels of care (clinic, community health centre, district hospital, regional and central hospital); and by which cadre (midwife, clinical officer, general doctor, specialist). Effective management of PPH requires on-going training and emergency drills. Reducing mortality from PPH is not possible without available urgent transport from home to facility and between levels of care. In addition, the essential building blocks of the health system must be functional to enable effective management of PPH.

Assessment of clinical decision-making among healthcare professionals performing caesarean deliveries in Burkina Faso

OBJECTIVE

To identify the factors associated with quality decision-making of healthcare professionals in managing complicated labour and delivery in referral hospitals of Burkina Faso.

METHODS

We carried out a six-month observational cross-sectional study among 123 healthcare professionals performing caesareans in 22 hospitals. Clinical decision-making was evaluated using hypothetical patient vignettes framed around four main complications during labour and delivery and developed using guidelines validated by an expert committee. The results were used to generate a quality decision-making score. A multivariate linear regression analysis was used to identify the factors independently associated with the score.

RESULTS

Out of 100, the mean ± SD quality decision-making score was 63.84 ± 7.21 for midwives, 65.58 ± 6.90 for general practitioners (GPs), and 71.94 ± 6.70 for gynaecologist-obstetricians (p < 0.001). Quality decision-making score was higher among professionals with more than seven years' work experience and those with the highest level of professional qualification. Working in a service where partograms are regularly reviewed by peers dramatically increased the skills of professionals.

CONCLUSION

The simple dissemination of written clinical guidelines is not sufficient to maintain high-quality decision-making among healthcare professionals in Burkina Faso. Midwives may have some better scores than GPs if duly retrained and supervised. Increasing in-service training and supervision of both junior staff and lower-qualified healthcare professionals might help to improve obstetric practices in referral hospitals of Burkina Faso.

Predictors of caesarean section in Northern Ghana: a case-control study

Introduction

Caesarean section rates have become a global public health. This study investigated obstetric and socio-demographic factors associated with caesarean section in northern Ghana.

Methods

This was a case-control study comparing 150 women who had caesarean section (cases) and 300 women who had vaginal delivery (controls). Data were collected retrospectively from delivery registers, postpartum and postnatal registers in the Bolgatanga Regional Hospital. Univariate and multivariate analysis of data were done using SPSS 22.

Results

The study revealed that women who had higher odds of having a caesarean section were women who; attended Antenatal care (ANC) ≥ 4 times (Adjusted OR= 2.99, 95% CI1.762-5.065), were referred from other health facilities (Adjusted OR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.108-1.337) and had a foetal weight of ≥ 4000 grams (Adjusted OR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.064-1.657). There was a slight increase in odds of having a caesarean section among women who had a gestational age > 40 weeks (Adjusted OR = 1.09, 95% CI 1.029-1.281). Women who had secondary/higher education (Adjusted OR = 0.55, 95% CI 0.320-0.941), gestational age < 37 weeks (Adjusted OR = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.100-0.412) and women who had a foetal weight of 1500 grams to 2499 grams (Adjusted OR = 0.17, 95% CI 0.086-0.339) were associated with a lower odds of having a caesarean section.

Conclusion

There was an increase in odds of having a caesarean section among pregnant women who had a foetal weight of ≥ 4000 grams and women who attended ANC ≥ 4 times. Pregnant women who were referred also had increase odds of having a caesarean section.

Signal functions for emergency obstetric care as an intervention for reducing maternal mortality: a survey of public and private health facilities in Lusaka District, Zambia

Background

Zambia’s maternal mortality ratio was estimated at 398/100,000 live births in 2014. Successful aversion of deaths is dependent on availability and usability of signal functions for emergency obstetric and neonatal care. Evidence of availability, usability and quality of signal functions in urban settings in Zambia is minimal as previous research has evaluated their distribution in rural settings. This survey evaluated the availability and usability of signal functions in private and public health facilities in Lusaka District of Zambia.

Methods

A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted between November 2014 and February 2015 at 35 public and private health facilities. The Service Availability and Readiness Assessment tool was adapted and administered to overall in-charges, hospital administrators or maternity ward supervisors at health facilities providing maternal and newborn health services. The survey quantified infrastructure, human resources, equipment, essential drugs and supplies and used the UN process indicators to determine availability, accessibility and quality of signal functions. Data on deliveries and complications were collected from registers for periods between June 2013 and May 2014.

Results

Of the 35 (25.7% private and 74.2% public) health facilities assessed, only 22 (62.8%) were staffed 24 h a day, 7 days a week and had provided obstetric care 3 months prior to the survey. Pre-eclampsia/ eclampsia and obstructed labor accounted for most direct complications while postpartum hemorrhage was the leading cause of maternal deaths. Overall, 3 (8.6%) and 5 (14.3%) of the health facilities had provided Basic and Comprehensive EmONC services, respectively. All facilities obtained blood products from the only blood bank at a government referral hospital.

Conclusion

The UN process indicators can be adequately used to monitor progress towards maternal mortality reduction. Lusaka district had an unmet need for BEmONC as health facilities fell below the minimum UN standard. Public health facilities with capacity to perform signal functions should be upgraded to Basic EmONC status. Efforts must focus on enhancing human resource capacity in EmONC and improving infrastructure and supply chain. Obstetric health needs and international trends must drive policy change.

The Use of Facilities for Labor and Delivery: The Views of Women in Rural Uganda

The aim of the paper is to explore factors associated with home or hospital delivery in rural Uganda. Qualitative interviews with recently-delivered women in rural Uganda and statistical analysis of data from the 2011 Ugandan Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) to assess the association between socio-demographic and cultural factors and delivery location in multivariable regression models. In the DHS, 61.7% (of 4907) women had a facility-based delivery (FBD); in adjusted analyses, FBD was associated with an urban setting [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 3.38, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.66 to 4.28)], the upper wealth quintile (aOR: 3.69, 95%CI 2.79 to 3.87) and with secondary education (aOR: 3.07, 95%CI 2.37 to 3.96). In interviews women quoted costs and distance as barriers to FBD. Other factors reported in interviews to be associated with FBD included family influence, perceived necessity of care (weak women needed FBD), and the reputation of the facility (women bypassed local facilities to deliver at better hospitals). Choosing a FBD is a complex decision and education around the benefits of FBD should be combined with interventions designed to remove barriers to FBD.

The magnitude and factors related to facility-based maternal mortality in Mozambique

Facility-based maternal mortality remains an important public health problem in Mozambique. A number of factors associated with health system functioning can be described behind the occurrence of these deaths. This paper aimed to evaluate the magnitude of the health facility-based maternal mortality, its geographical distribution and to assess the health facility factors implicated in the occurrence of these deaths. A secondary analysis was done on data from the survey on maternal health needs performed by the Ministry of Health of Mozambique in 2008. During the study period 2.198 maternal deaths occurred out of 312.537 deliveries. According to the applied model the availability of Maternal and Child Health (MCH) nurses performing Emergency Obstetric Care functions was related to the reduction of facility-based maternal mortality by 40%. No significant effects were observed for the availability of medical doctors, surgical technicians and critical delivery room equipment. Impact statement Is largely known that the availability of skilled attendants assisting every delivery and providing Emergency Obstetric Care services during the pregnancy, labor and Childbirth is key for maternal mortality reduction. This study add the differentiation on the impact of different cadres of health services providers working on maternal and child health services on the facility based maternal mortality. In this setting the study proven the high impact of the midlevel skilled maternal and child health nurses on the reduction of maternal mortality. Another important add from this study is the use of facility based maternal mortality data to inform the management process of maternal healthcare services. The findings from this study have potential to impact on the decision of staffing prioritization in setting like the study setting. The findings support the policy choice to improve the availability of maternal and child health nurses.

Knowledge and Skills of Healthcare Providers in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia before and after Competency-Based Training in Emergency Obstetric and Early Newborn Care

Background

Healthcare provider training in Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care (EmOC&NC) is a component of 65% of intervention programs aimed at reducing maternal and newborn mortality and morbidity. It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of this.

Methods

We evaluated knowledge and skills among 5,939 healthcare providers before and after 3–5 days ‘skills and drills’ training in emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmOC&NC) conducted in 7 sub-Saharan Africa countries (Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zimbabwe) and 2 Asian countries (Bangladesh, Pakistan). Standardised assessments using multiple choice questions and objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) were used to measure change in knowledge and skills and the Improvement Ratio (IR) by cadre and by country. Linear regression was performed to identify variables associated with pre-training score and IR.

Results

99.7% of healthcare providers improved their overall score with a median (IQR) increase of 10.0% (5.0% - 15.0%) for knowledge and 28.8% (23.1% - 35.1%) for skill. There were significant improvements in knowledge and skills for each cadre of healthcare provider and for each country (p<0.05). The mean IR was 56% for doctors, 50% for mid-level staff and nurse-midwives and 38% for nursing-aides. A teaching job, previous in-service training, and higher percentage of work-time spent providing maternity care were each associated with a higher pre-training score. Those with more than 11 years of experience in obstetrics had the lowest scores prior to training, with mean IRs 1.4% lower than for those with no more than 2 years of experience. The largest IR was for recognition and management of obstetric haemorrhage (49–70%) and the smallest for recognition and management of obstructed labour and use of the partograph (6–15%).

Conclusions

Short in-service EmOC&NC training was associated with improved knowledge and skills for all cadres of healthcare providers working in maternity wards in both sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Additional support and training is needed for use of the partograph as a tool to monitor progress in labour. Further research is needed to assess if this is translated into improved service delivery.

Barriers in the Delivery of Emergency Obstetric and Neonatal Care in Post-Conflict Africa: Qualitative Case Studies of Burundi and Northern Uganda

Objectives

Maternal and neonatal mortality and morbidity rates are particularly grim in conflict, post-conflict and other crisis settings, a situation partly blamed on non-availability and/or poor quality of emergency obstetric and neonatal care (EmONC) services. The aim of this study was to explore the barriers to effective delivery of EmONC services in post-conflict Burundi and Northern Uganda, in order to provide policy makers and other relevant stakeholders context-relevant data on improving the delivery of these lifesaving services.

Methods

This was a qualitative comparative case study that used 42 face-to-face semi-structured in-depth interviews and 4 focus group discussions for data collection. Participants were 32 local health providers and 37 staff of NGOs working in the area of maternal health. Data was analysed using the framework approach.

Results

The availability, quality and distribution of EmONC services were major challenges across the sites. The barriers in the delivery of quality EmONC services were categorised into two major themes; human resources-related challenges, and systemic and institutional failures. While some of the barriers were similar, others were unique to specific sites. The common barriers included shortage of qualified staff; lack of essential installations, supplies and medications; increasing workload, burn-out and turnover; and poor data collection and monitoring systems. Barriers unique to Northern Uganda were demoralised personnel and lack of recognition; poor referral system; inefficient drug supply system; staff absenteeism in rural areas; and poor coordination among key personnel. In Burundi, weak curriculum; poor harmonisation and coordination of training; and inefficient allocation of resources were the unique challenges. To improve the situation across the sites, efforts are ongoing to improve the training and recruitment of more staff; harmonise and strengthen the curriculum and training; increase the number of EmONC facilities; and improve staff supervision, monitoring and support.

Conclusions

Post-conflict health systems face different challenges in the delivery of EmONC services and as such require context-specific interventions to improve the delivery of these services.

Global obstetric medicine: Collaborating towards global progress in maternal health

Globally, the nature of maternal mortality and morbidity is shifting from direct obstetric causes to an increasing proportion of indirect causes due to chronic conditions and ageing of the maternal population. Obstetric medicine can address an important gap in the care of women by broadening its scope to include colleagues, communities and countries that do not yet have established obstetric medicine training, education and resources. We present the concept of global obstetric medicine by highlighting three low- and middle-income country experiences as well as an example of successful collaboration. The article also discusses ideas and initiatives to build future partnerships within the global obstetric medicine community.

Maternal, fetal and neonatal mortality: lessons learned from historical changes in high income countries and their potential application to low-income countries

BACKGROUND

There are large differences in pregnancy outcome between high income countries and many middle and low income countries. In fact, maternal, fetal and neonatal mortality rates in many low-income countries approximate those that were seen in high-income countries nearly a century ago.

FINDINGS

This paper documents the very substantial reductions in maternal, fetal and neonatal mortality rates in high income countries over the last century and explores the likely reasons for those reductions. The conditions responsible for the current high mortality rates in low and middle income countries are discussed as are the interventions likely to result in substantial reductions in maternal, fetal and neonatal mortality from those conditions. The conditions that result in maternal mortality are often responsible for fetal and neonatal mortality and the interventions that save maternal lives often reduce fetal and neonatal mortality as well. Single interventions rarely achieve substantial reductions in mortality. Instead, upgrading the system of care so that appropriate interventions could be applied at appropriate times is most likely to achieve the desired reductions in maternal, fetal and neonatal mortality.

Trends in and socio-demographic factors associated with caesarean section at a Tanzanian referral hospital, 2000 to 2013

BACKGROUND

Caesarean section (CS) can prevent maternal or fetal complications. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest CS levels in the world but large variations are seen between and within countries. The tertiary hospital, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) in Tanzania has had a high level of CS over years. The aim of this study was to examine trends in the socio-demographic background of babies born at KCMC from year 2000 to 2013, and trends in the CS percentage, and to identify socio-demographic factors associated with CS at KCMC during this period.

METHODS

This is a registry-based study. The analyses were limited to singletons born by women from Moshi urban and rural districts. The Chi square test for linear trend was used to examine trends in the CS percentage and trends in the socio-demographic background of the baby. The association between different socio-demographic factors and CS was assessed using logistic regression. The analyses were stratified by the mother's residence.

RESULTS

The educational level of mothers and fathers and the age of the mothers of singletons born at KCMC increased significantly from year 2000 to 2013 both among urban and rural residents. Among 29,752 singletons, the overall CS percentage was 28.9%, and there was no clear trend in the overall CS percentage between 2000 and 2013. In the multivariable model, factors associated with higher odds of CS were: having been referred for delivery, maternal age above 25 and no- or primary education level of the baby's father. Among rural mothers, no- or primary education, being from the Pare tribe and para 2-3 were also associated with higher odds of CS. Being from the Chagga tribe and high parity were associated with lower odds of CS compared to other tribes and parity 1.

CONCLUSIONS

The CS percentage remained high but stable over time. Large variations in CS levels between different socio-demographic groups were observed. The educational level of the parents of babies born at KCMC increased over time, possibly reflecting persistent inequitable access to the services offered at the hospital.

Provider perspectives on the enabling environment required for skilled birth attendance: a qualitative study in western Nepal

OBJECTIVES

In Nepal, where difficult geography and an under-resourced health system contribute to poor health care access, the government has increased the number of trained skilled birth attendants (SBAs) and posted them in newly constructed birthing centres attached to peripheral health facilities that are available to women 24 h a day. This study describes their views on their enabling environment.

METHODS

Qualitative methods included semi-structured interviews with 22 SBAs within Palpa district, a hill district in the Western Region of Nepal; a focus group discussion with ten SBA trainees, and in-depth interviews with five key informants.

RESULTS

Participants identified the essential components of an enabling environment as: relevant training; ongoing professional support; adequate infrastructure, equipment and drugs; and timely referral pathways. All SBAs who practised alone felt unable to manage obstetric complications because quality management of life-threatening complications requires the attention of more than one SBA.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal health guidelines should account for the provision of an enabling environment in addition to the deployment of SBAs. In Nepal, referral systems require strengthening, and the policy of posting SBAs alone, in remote clinics, needs to be reconsidered to achieve the goal of reducing maternal deaths through timely management of obstetric complications.

Achieving the millennium development goal of reducing maternal mortality in rural Africa: an experience from Burundi

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the reduction in maternal mortality associated with the emergency obstetric care provided by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) and to compare this to the fifth Millennium Development Goal of reducing maternal mortality.

METHODS

The impact of MSF's intervention was approximated by estimating how many deaths were averted among women transferred to and treated at MSF's emergency obstetric care facility in Kabezi, Burundi, with a severe acute maternal morbidity. Using this estimate, the resulting theoretical maternal mortality ratio in Kabezi was calculated and compared to the Millennium Development Goal for Burundi.

RESULTS

In 2011, 1385 women from Kabezi were transferred to the MSF facility, of whom 55% had a severe acute maternal morbidity. We estimated that the MSF intervention averted 74% (range 55-99%) of maternal deaths in Kabezi district, equating to a district maternal mortality rate of 208 (range 8-360) deaths/100,000 live births. This lies very near to the 2015 MDG 5 target for Burundi (285 deaths/100,000 live births).

CONCLUSION

Provision of quality emergency obstetric care combined with a functional patient transfer system can be associated with a rapid and substantial reduction in maternal mortality, and may thus be a possible way to achieve Millennium Development Goal 5 in rural Africa.

Availability and quality of emergency obstetric and neonatal care services in Afghanistan

OBJECTIVE

To assess the availability and utilization of emergency obstetric and neonatal care (EmONC) facilities in Afghanistan, as defined by UN indicators.

METHODS

In a cross-sectional study of 78 first-line referral facilities located in secure areas of Afghanistan, EmONC service delivery was evaluated by using Averting Maternal Deaths and Disabilities (AMDD) Program assessment tools.

RESULTS

Forty-two percent of peripheral facilities did not perform all 9 signal functions required of comprehensive EmONC facilities. The study facilities delivered 17% of all neonates expected in their target populations and treated 20% of women expected to experience direct complications. The population-based rate of cesarean delivery was 1%. Most maternal deaths (96%) were due to direct causes. The direct and indirect obstetric case fatality rates were 0.8% and 0.2%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Notable progress has been made in Afghanistan over the past 8 years in improving the quality, coverage, and utilization of EmONC services, but gaps remain. Re-examination of the criteria for selecting and positioning EmONC facilities is recommended, as is the provision of high-quality, essential maternal and neonatal health services at all levels of the healthcare system, linked by appropriate communication and functional referral systems.

Caesarean section among referred and self-referred birthing women: a cohort study from a tertiary hospital, northeastern Tanzania

BACKGROUND

The inequity in emergency obstetric care access in Tanzania is unsatisfactory. Despite an existing national obstetric referral system, many birthing women bypass referring facilities and go directly to higher-level care centres. We wanted to compare Caesarean section (CS) rates among women formally referred to a tertiary care centre versus self-referred women, and to assess the effect of referral status on adverse outcomes after CS.

METHODS

We used data from 21,011 deliveries, drawn from the birth registry of a tertiary hospital in northeastern Tanzania, during 2000-07. Referral status was categorized as self-referred if the woman had bypassed or not accessed referral, or formally-referred if referred by a health worker. Because CS indications were insufficiently registered, we applied the Ten-Group Classification System to determine the CS rate by obstetric group and referral status. Associations between referral status and adverse outcomes after CS delivery were analysed using multiple regression models. Outcome measures were CS, maternal death, obstetric haemorrhage ≥ 750 mL, postpartum stay > 9 days, neonatal death, Apgar score < 7 at 5 min and neonatal ward transfer.

RESULTS

Referral status contributed substantially to the CS rate, which was 55.0% in formally-referred and 26.9% in self-referred birthing women. In both groups, term nulliparous singleton cephalic pregnancies and women with previous scar(s) constituted two thirds of CS deliveries. Low Apgar score (adjusted OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.09-1.86) and neonatal ward transfer (adjusted OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.04-1.35) were significantly associated with formal referral. Early neonatal death rates after CS were 1.6% in babies of formally-referred versus 1.2% in babies of self-referred birthing women, a non-significant difference after adjusting for confounding factors (adjusted OR 1.37, 95% CI 0.87-2.16). Absolute neonatal death rates were > 2% after CS in breech, multiple gestation and preterm deliveries in both referral groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Women referred for delivery had higher CS rates and poorer neonatal outcomes, suggesting that the formal referral system successfully identifies high-risk birth, although low volume suggests underutilization. High absolute rates of post-CS adverse outcomes among breech, multiple gestation and preterm deliveries suggest the need to target self-referred birthing women for earlier professional intrapartum care.