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Taurine Stimulates AMP-Activated Protein Kinase and Modulates the Skeletal Muscle Functions in Rats via the Induction of Intracellular Calcium Influx. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044125. [PMID: 36835534 PMCID: PMC9962205 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) is a free amino acid abundantly found in mammalian tissues. Taurine plays a role in the maintenance of skeletal muscle functions and is associated with exercise capacity. However, the mechanism underlying taurine function in skeletal muscles has not yet been elucidated. In this study, to investigate the mechanism of taurine function in the skeletal muscles, the effects of short-term administration of a relatively low dose of taurine on the skeletal muscles of Sprague-Dawley rats and the underlying mechanism of taurine function in cultured L6 myotubes were investigated. The results obtained in this study in rats and L6 cells indicate that taurine modulates the skeletal muscle function by stimulating the expression of genes and proteins associated with mitochondrial and respiratory metabolism through the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase via the calcium signaling pathway.
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Yuan X, Liu Y, Chen Y, Jiao H, Zhao J, Wang X, Zhou Y, Lin H. Effect of substitution of taurine for methionine and additional taurine supplementation on the performance and antioxidative capacity of laying hens. Poult Sci 2022; 102:102426. [PMID: 36587450 PMCID: PMC9811254 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.102426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Taurine (TAU), a sulfur-containing amino acid that synthesized from methionine and cystine, plays vital roles in maintenance of redox balance. The effect of substitution of TAU for methionine was evaluated in vivo and in vitro. The effects of replacing methionine with TAU and additional TAU supplementation on the performance and antioxidant capacity of laying hens were evaluated. The in vitro cultured chicken primary hepatocytes and intestinal epithelial cells were further employed. Two hubdred eighty-eight 40-wk-old Isa brown laying hens were divided into 4 groups and subjected one to the following treatments: fed with basal diet with 0.17% crystallized DL-Met (CON), the control diet and replace 25% (21% total Met, 21TAU) or 50% (42% total Met, 42TAU) of crystallized DL-Met with taurine, the control diet supplemented with 0.1% taurine (0.1% TAU). The laying rate, feed intake, egg weight, and feed efficiency were not influenced (P > 0.05) by TAU replacement or additional TAU supplementation. In the liver, 0.1% TAU decreased SOD but increased GSH-Px activity (P < 0.01). In duodenum, 42TAU decreased SOD activity (P < 0.05) while 0.1% TAU decreased GSH level and SOD activity (P < 0.05). In the hepatocytes, TAU treatment decreased (P < 0.05) the MDA and GSH contents, whereas increased SOD and GSH-Px activities (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, TAU treatment decreased (P < 0.05) the protein expression of Nrf2 while increase Keap1 expression. The mRNA expression of Nrf2, SOD1, SOD2, CAT, and GCLC were increased (P < 0.05) and GSR were decreased (P < 0.05) by 0.1% TAU. In the intestinal epithelial cells, TAU treatment decreased (P < 0.05) SOD activity, increased (P < 0.05) CAT activity, and decreased (P < 0.05) the mRNA and protein expression of Nrf2. In summary, partial substitution methionine for taurine (21-42%) has no influence on egg performance of hens. Taurine enhances the antioxidative capacity in hepatocyte but not in the enterocytes and if taurine could offer an improved effect on antioxidant capacity needs to be verified under oxidative stress-challenged conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiukang Yuan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Yu Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Yanling Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Hongchao Jiao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Jingpeng Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Xiaojuan Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Yunlei Zhou
- College of Chemistry and Material Science, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Hai Lin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Non-grain Feed Resources (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Shandong Key Lab for Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Taian, Shandong 271018, China.
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N-acetyltaurine and Acetylcarnitine Production for the Mitochondrial Acetyl-CoA Regulation in Skeletal Muscles during Endurance Exercises. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11080522. [PMID: 34436463 PMCID: PMC8401229 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11080522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During endurance exercises, a large amount of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA is produced in skeletal muscles from lipids, and the excess acetyl-CoA suppresses the metabolic flux from glycolysis to the TCA cycle. This study evaluated the hypothesis that taurine and carnitine act as a buffer of the acetyl moiety of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA derived from the short- and long-chain fatty acids of skeletal muscles during endurance exercises. In human subjects, the serum concentrations of acetylated forms of taurine (NAT) and carnitine (ACT), which are the metabolites of acetyl-CoA buffering, significantly increased after a full marathon. In the culture medium of primary human skeletal muscle cells, NAT and ACT concentrations significantly increased when they were cultured with taurine and acetate or with carnitine and palmitic acid, respectively. The increase in the mitochondrial acetyl-CoA/free CoA ratio induced by acetate and palmitic acid was suppressed by taurine and carnitine, respectively. Elevations of NAT and ACT in the blood of humans during endurance exercises might serve the buffering of the acetyl-moiety in mitochondria by taurine and carnitine, respectively. The results suggest that blood levels of NAT and ACT indicate energy production status from fatty acids in the skeletal muscles of humans undergoing endurance exercise.
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Seidel U, Lüersen K, Huebbe P, Rimbach G. Taurine Enhances Iron-Related Proteins and Reduces Lipid Peroxidation in Differentiated C2C12 Myotubes. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1071. [PMID: 33142756 PMCID: PMC7693586 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9111071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Taurine is a nonproteinogenic amino sulfonic acid in mammals. Interestingly, skeletal muscle is unable to synthesize taurine endogenously, and the processing of muscular taurine changes throughout ageing and under specific pathophysiological conditions, such as muscular dystrophy. Ageing and disease are also associated with altered iron metabolism, especially when there is an excess of labile iron. The present study addresses the question of whether taurine connects cytoprotective effects and redox homeostasis in a previously unknown iron-dependent manner. Using cultured differentiated C2C12 myotubes, the impact of taurine on markers of lipid peroxidation, redox-sensitive enzymes and iron-related proteins was studied. Significant increases in the heme protein myoglobin and the iron storage protein ferritin were observed in response to taurine treatment. Taurine supplementation reduced lipid peroxidation and BODIPY oxidation by ~60 and 25%, respectively. Furthermore, the mRNA levels of redox-sensitive heme oxygenase (Hmox1), catalase (Cat) and glutamate-cysteine ligase (Gclc) and the total cellular glutathione content were lower in taurine-supplemented cells than they were in the control cells. We suggest that taurine may inhibit the initiation and propagation of lipid peroxidation by lowering basal levels of cellular stress, perhaps through reduction of the cellular labile iron pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Seidel
- Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, University of Kiel, 24118 Kiel, Germany; (K.L.); (P.H.); (G.R.)
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Kato T, Okita S, Wang S, Tsunekawa M, Ma N. The effects of taurine administration against inflammation in heavily exercised skeletal muscle of rats. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 803:773-84. [PMID: 25833544 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-15126-7_62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiro Kato
- Faculty of Nursing Sciences, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka, 513-8670, Mie, Japan
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Dutka TL, Lamboley CR, Murphy RM, Lamb GD. Acute effects of taurine on sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ accumulation and contractility in human type I and type II skeletal muscle fibers. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 117:797-805. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00494.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Taurine occurs in high concentrations in muscle and is implicated in numerous physiological processes, yet its effects on many aspects of contractility remain unclear. Using mechanically skinned segments of human vastus lateralis muscle fibers, we characterized the effects of taurine on sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ accumulation and contractile apparatus properties in type I and type II fibers. Prolonged myoplasmic exposure (>10 min) to taurine substantially increased the rate of accumulation of Ca2+ by the SR in both fiber types, with no change in the maximum amount accumulated; no such effect was found with carnosine. SR Ca2+ accumulation was similar with 10 or 20 mM taurine, but was significantly slower at 5 mM taurine. Cytoplasmic taurine (20 mM) had no detectable effects on the responsiveness of the Ca2+ release channels in either fiber type. Taurine caused a small increase in Ca2+ sensitivity of the contractile apparatus in type I fibers, but type II fibers were unaffected; maximum Ca2+-activated force was unchanged in both cases. The effects of taurine on SR Ca2+ accumulation 1) only became apparent after prolonged cytoplasmic exposure, and 2) persisted for some minutes after complete removal of taurine from the cytoplasm, consistent with the hypothesis that the effects were due to an action of taurine from inside the SR. In summary, taurine potentiates the rate of SR Ca2+ uptake in both type I and type II human fibers, possibly via an action from within the SR lumen, with the degree of potentiation being significantly reduced at low physiological taurine levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. L. Dutka
- Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and
| | - C. R. Lamboley
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - R. M. Murphy
- Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and
| | - G. D. Lamb
- Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and
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Tallis J, Higgins MF, Cox VM, Duncan MJ, James RS. Does a physiological concentration of taurine increase acute muscle power output, time to fatigue, and recovery in isolated mouse soleus (slow) muscle with or without the presence of caffeine? Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2013; 92:42-9. [PMID: 24383872 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2013-0195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
High concentrations of caffeine and taurine are key constituents of many ergogenic supplements ingested acutely to provide legal enhancements in athlete performance. Despite this, there is little evidence supporting the claims for the performance-enhancing effects of acute taurine supplementation. In-vitro models have demonstrated that a caffeine-induced muscle contracture can be further potentiated when combined with a high concentration of taurine. However, the high concentrations of caffeine used in previous research would be toxic for human consumption. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether a physiological dose of caffeine and taurine would directly potentiate skeletal muscle performance. Isolated mouse soleus muscle was used to examine the effects of physiological taurine (TAU), caffeine (CAF), and taurine-caffeine combined (TC) on (i) acute muscle power output; (ii) time to fatigue; and (iii) recovery from fatigue, compared with the untreated controls (CON). Treatment with TAU failed to elicit any significant difference in the measured parameters. Treatment with TC resulted in a significant increase in acute muscle power output and faster time to fatigue. The ergogenic benefit posed by TC was not different from the effects of caffeine alone, suggesting no acute ergogenic benefit of taurine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Tallis
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, James Starley Building, Coventry University, Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, UK
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Miyazaki T, Honda A, Ikegami T, Matsuzaki Y. The role of taurine on skeletal muscle cell differentiation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2013; 776:321-8. [PMID: 23392893 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-6093-0_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Taurine abundantly contained in the skeletal muscle has been considered as one of essential factors for the differentiation and growth of skeletal muscles. The previous studies in the taurine transporter knockout mice showed that deficiency of taurine content in the skeletal muscle caused incomplete muscular developments, morphological abnormalities, and exercise abilities. In fetal and neonatal periods, taurine must be an essential amino acid due to no biosynthesis capacity, and therefore, taurine should be endogenously supplied through placenta and maternal milk. In general cell culture condition, taurine contained in the culture medium is absent or few, and therefore, most of cultured cells are in taurine-deficient condition. In the present study, we confirmed, in cultured mouse differentiable myoblast, taurine treatment significantly enhanced the differentiation to myotube in a dose-dependent manner, while these effects were abrogated by inhibitions of taurine transport and Ca(2+) signaling pathway.The present study suggested that exogenous taurine might play a key role on the mature differentiation/growth of the skeletal muscle during development period through Ca(2+) signaling pathway, and therefore, taurine would contribute the muscle recovery after damages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teruo Miyazaki
- Tokyo Medical University Ibaraki Medical Center, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Cornet M, Bousset J. Free amino acids and dipeptides in porcine muscles: differences between `red' and `white' muscles. Meat Sci 2012; 51:215-9. [PMID: 22061854 DOI: 10.1016/s0309-1740(98)00104-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/1998] [Revised: 06/16/1998] [Accepted: 06/16/1998] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Three porcine muscles (m. longissimus dorsi, masseter and trapezius), chosen to represent the three main metabolic types, from 18 carcasses had their free amino acids and dipeptides quantified by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in aqueous extracts derivatized with phenyl isothiocyanate. Of the 25 measured compounds, four amino acids and the dipeptide carnosine were closely related to the metabolic type of the three muscles. Masseter, a red oxidative muscle, had the highest contents of aspartic acid, glutamine and taurine. Longissimus dorsi, a white glycolytic muscle was characterised by the highest contents of β-alanine and carnosine. Trapezius, an intermediate muscle, had intermediate contents. These results show that free amino acid and dipeptide contents could partly explain differences in taste of muscles from the same species.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Cornet
- INRA, Laboratoire de Recherches sur la Viande, 78352 Jouy en Josas Cedex, France
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Pierno S, Liantonio A, Camerino GM, De Bellis M, Cannone M, Gramegna G, Scaramuzzi A, Simonetti S, Nicchia GP, Basco D, Svelto M, Desaphy JF, Camerino DC. Potential benefits of taurine in the prevention of skeletal muscle impairment induced by disuse in the hindlimb-unloaded rat. Amino Acids 2011; 43:431-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1099-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Cozzoli A, Rolland JF, Capogrosso RF, Sblendorio VT, Longo V, Simonetti S, Nico B, De Luca A. Evaluation of potential synergistic action of a combined treatment with alpha-methyl-prednisolone and taurine on the mdx mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2011; 37:243-56. [PMID: 20618838 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2010.01106.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Glucocorticoids are the sole drugs clinically used in Duchenne muscular dystrophy, in spite of the relevant side effects. Combination of glucocorticoids with synergistic drugs may be one strategy to lower doses and control side effects, meanwhile providing wider control of the complex pathology. This study is a preclinical evaluation of the effect of a combined treatment of α-methyl-prednisolone (PDN) with taurine, a safe aminoacid with positive effects on some pathology-related events. METHODS PDN (1 mg/kg/day i.p.) and taurine (1 g/kg/day orally) were administered either alone or in combination, for 4-8 weeks to male dystrophic mdx mice chronically exercised on a treadmill. Effects were assessed in vivo and ex vivo with a variety of methodological approaches. RESULTS In vivo, each treatment significantly increased fore limb strength, a marked synergistic effect being observed with the combination PDN + taurine. Ex vivo, PDN + taurine completely restored the mechanical threshold, an electrophysiological index of calcium homeostasis, of extensor digitorum longus myofibres and the benefit was greater than for PDN alone. In parallel, the overactivity of voltage-independent cation channels in dystrophic myofibres was reduced. No effects were observed on plasma levels of creatine kinase, while lactate dehydrogenase was decreased by taurine and, to a minor extent, by PDN + taurine. A similar histology profile was observed in PDN and PDN + taurine-treated muscles. PDN + taurine significantly increased taurine level in fast-twitch muscle and brain, by high-pressure liquid chromatography analysis. CONCLUSIONS The combination PDN + taurine has additive actions on in vivo and ex vivo functional end points, with less evident advantages on histopathology and biochemical markers of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cozzoli
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaco-biology, Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bari Metabolic Disease Unit, Paediatric Hospital Giovanni XXIII, Bari, Italy
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Goodman CA, Horvath D, Stathis C, Mori T, Croft K, Murphy RM, Hayes A. Taurine supplementation increases skeletal muscle force production and protects muscle function during and after high-frequency in vitro stimulation. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2009; 107:144-54. [PMID: 19423840 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00040.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies report that depletion and repletion of muscle taurine (Tau) to endogenous levels affects skeletal muscle contractility in vitro. In this study, muscle Tau content was raised above endogenous levels by supplementing male Sprague-Dawley rats with 2.5% (wt/vol) Tau in drinking water for 2 wk, after which extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles were examined for in vitro contractile properties, fatigue resistance, and recovery from fatigue after two different high-frequency stimulation bouts. Tau supplementation increased muscle Tau content by approximately 40% and isometric twitch force by 19%, shifted the force-frequency relationship upward and to the left, increased specific force by 4.2%, and increased muscle calsequestrin protein content by 49%. Force at the end of a 10-s (100 Hz) continuous tetanic stimulation was 6% greater than controls, while force at the end of the 3-min intermittent high-frequency stimulation bout was significantly higher than controls, with a 12% greater area under the force curve. For 1 h after the 10-s continuous stimulation, tetanic force in Tau-supplemented muscles remained relatively stable while control muscle force gradually deteriorated. After the 3-min intermittent bout, tetanic force continued to slowly recover over the next 1 h, while control muscle force again began to decline. Tau supplementation attenuated F(2)-isoprostane production (a sensitive indicator of reactive oxygen species-induced lipid peroxidation) during the 3-min intermittent stimulation bout. Finally, Tau transporter protein expression was not altered by the Tau supplementation. Our results demonstrate that raising Tau content above endogenous levels increases twitch and subtetanic and specific force in rat fast-twitch skeletal muscle. Also, we demonstrate that raising Tau protects muscle function during high-frequency in vitro stimulation and the ensuing recovery period and helps reduce oxidative stress during prolonged stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A Goodman
- School of Human Movement, Recreation and Performance, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Matsuzaki Y, Miyazaki T, Miyakawa S, Bouscarel B, Ikegami T, Tanaka N. Decreased taurine concentration in skeletal muscles after exercise for various durations. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:793-7. [PMID: 11984297 DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200205000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the changes of taurine concentrations in blood and skeletal muscles after transient exercise. METHODS Rats were placed on a treadmill set at 25 m.min-1. The animals were divided into four groups: control (no exercise) and exercise groups 1, 2, and 3. The exercise duration for groups 1, 2, and 3 was 30, 60, and 100 +/- 12.5 min (to exhaustion: mean +/- SD), respectively. We examined the plasma concentrations of taurine and lactate, the serum concentrations of sodium and chloride ions, as well as the skeletal muscle taurine content in the soleus (slow-twitch fiber dominant type), gastrocnemius (slow- and fast-twitch fiber mix type), and plantaris and extensor digitorum longus (fast-twitch fiber dominant type) muscles. RESULTS Although the plasma taurine concentration was not affected by the increased exercise duration, that in skeletal muscles was significantly decreased. The gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles from the exercise group 3 had a significantly lower concentration of taurine than those of the control group. The extensor digitorum longus taurine concentration from the different exercise groups was significantly decreased compared with that from the control group. However, there was no significant difference among the exercise groups. CONCLUSION Taurine concentration was decreased in all skeletal muscles after exercise, regardless of the duration. Moreover, this decrease was specific to fast-twitch dominant fibers. However, under these conditions, the plasma taurine concentration remained unchanged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Matsuzaki
- Departments of Gastroenterology and Orthopaedics, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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Lima L, Cubillos S, Guerra A. Regulation of high affinity taurine transport in goldfish and rat retinal cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2002; 483:431-40. [PMID: 11787628 DOI: 10.1007/0-306-46838-7_48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive regulation and modulation by phosphorylation are mechanisms by which some cells control taurine transport. Goldfish and rat retinal cells were incubated with the activator of protein kinase C, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PDBu), or the inhibitor of protein phosphatases, okadaic acid (OKA). OKA, 1 nM, inhibited the uptake of taurine at short period of incubation in goldfish retinal cells, and at low concentrations in rat retinal cells incubated with the inhibitor for 1 h. PDBu treatment did not produce significant effects. Isolated Müller cells from the goldfish retina presented a clear adaptive regulation and a decrease of taurine uptake by increasing phosphorylation either by the stimulation of PKC with PDBu or the inhibition of phosphatases with OKA.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lima
- Laboratorio de Neuroquímica, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas
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Bakker AJ, Berg HM. Effect of taurine on sarcoplasmic reticulum function and force in skinned fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibres of the rat. J Physiol 2002; 538:185-94. [PMID: 11773327 PMCID: PMC2290020 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2001.012872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of taurine on depolarisation-induced force responses and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) function in mechanically skinned skeletal muscle fibres from the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) of the rat. Taurine (20 mM) produced a small but significant (P < 0.01) decrease in the sensitivity of the contractile apparatus to Ca(2+) (increase in the [Ca(2+)] corresponding to 50 % of maximum force of about 7 %; n = 10) and in maximum force (92.0 +/- 1.0 % of controls) in the skinned fibres. Taurine had no statistically significant effect on the slope of the force-pCa curve. Depolarisation-induced force responses in the skinned fibres were markedly increased in peak value by 20 mM taurine, to 120.8 +/- 5.3 % of control measurements (P = 0.0006, n = 27). Taurine (20 mM) significantly increased the SR Ca(2+) accumulation in the skinned fibres by 34.6 +/- 9.3 % compared to control conditions (measured by comparing the integral of caffeine contractures in fibres previously loaded with Ca(2+) in the absence or presence of taurine; P = 0.0014, n = 10). Taurine (20 mM) also increased both the peak and rate of rise of caffeine-induced force responses in the fibres by 29.2 +/- 9.7 % (P = 0.0298, n = 6) and 27.6 +/- 8.9 % (P = 0.037), respectively, compared with controls. This study shows that taurine is a modulator of contractile function in mammalian skeletal muscle. Taurine may increase the size of depolarisation-induced force responses by augmenting SR Ca(2+) accumulation and release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Bakker
- Department of Physiology, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6907, Australia.
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16
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Eppler B, Dawson R. The effects of aging on taurine content and biosynthesis in different strains of rats. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2001; 442:55-61. [PMID: 9635014 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-0117-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- B Eppler
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville 23610, USA
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Zorzano A, Fandos C, Palacín M. Role of plasma membrane transporters in muscle metabolism. Biochem J 2000; 349 Pt 3:667-88. [PMID: 10903126 PMCID: PMC1221192 DOI: 10.1042/bj3490667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Muscle plays a major role in metabolism. Thus it is a major glucose-utilizing tissue in the absorptive state, and changes in muscle insulin-stimulated glucose uptake alter whole-body glucose disposal. In some conditions, muscle preferentially uses lipid substrates, such as fatty acids or ketone bodies. Furthermore, muscle is the main reservoir of amino acids and protein. The activity of many different plasma membrane transporters, such as glucose carriers and transporters of carnitine, creatine and amino acids, play a crucial role in muscle metabolism by catalysing the influx or the efflux of substrates across the cell surface. In some cases, the membrane transport process is subjected to intense regulatory control and may become a potential pharmacological target, as is the case with the glucose transporter GLUT4. The goal of this review is the molecular characterization of muscle membrane transporter proteins, as well as the analysis of their possible regulatory role.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zorzano
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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18
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Lobo MV, Alonso FJ, Martin del Rio R. Immunocytochemical localization of taurine in different muscle cell types of the dog and rat. THE HISTOCHEMICAL JOURNAL 2000; 32:53-61. [PMID: 10805385 DOI: 10.1023/a:1003910429346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The presence and distribution of the amino acid taurine in different muscle cell types of the dog and rat was examined by immunocytochemical methods. The light microscope study revealed that smooth muscle cells were similarly immunoreactive for taurine, whereas skeletal muscle fibres showed wide differences in taurine immunoreactivity among individual cells. Some skeletal fibres were strongly immunoreactive whereas others did not display immunolabelling. Mononucleated satellite cells, found adjacent to skeletal fibres in a quiescent stage, were also immunostained. Other myoid cells, such as testicular peritubular cells showed a cytoplasmic and a nuclear pool of taurine. By means of electron microscope immunolabelling, the subcellular localization of taurine was studied in vascular and visceral smooth muscle cells. Taurine was present in most subcellular compartments and frequently appeared randomly distributed. Taurine was localized on myofilaments, dense bodies, mitochondria, the plasma membrane and the cell nucleus. Moreover, the labelling density within individual smooth muscle cells was variable and depended on the state of contraction of each single fibre. Contracted cells showed a higher density of gold particles than relaxed cells. Unmyelinated nerve fibres, found adjacent to smooth muscle cells from the muscularis mucosae and the lamina propria of the stomach, were unstained or poorly stained.
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Affiliation(s)
- M V Lobo
- Departamento de Investigación, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
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19
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Bertocci LA, Lujan BF. Incorporation and utilization of [3-13C]lactate and [1,2-13C]acetate by rat skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1999; 86:2077-89. [PMID: 10368376 DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1999.86.6.2077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle can utilize many different substrates, and traditional methodologies allow only indirect discrimination between oxidative and nonoxidative uptake of substrate, possibly with contamination by metabolism of other internal organs. Our goal was to apply 1H- and 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to monitor the patterns of [3-13C]lactate and [1,2-13C]acetate (model of simple carbohydrates and fats, respectively) utilization in resting vs. contracting muscle extracts of the isolated perfused rat hindquarter. Total metabolite concentrations were measured by using NADH-linked fluorometric assays. Fractional oxidation of [3-13C]lactate was unchanged by contraction despite vascular endogenous lactate accumulation. Although label accumulated in several citric acid cycle (CAC) intermediates, contraction did not increase the concentration of CAC intermediates in any muscle extracts. We conclude that 1) the isolated rat hindquarter is a viable, well-controlled model for measuring skeletal muscle 13C-labeled substrate utilization; 2) lactate is readily oxidized even during contractile activity; 3) entry and exit from the CAC, via oxidative and nonoxidative pathways, is a component of normal muscle metabolism and function; and 4) there are possible differences between gastrocnemius and soleus muscles in utilization of nonoxidative pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Bertocci
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas, Dallas 75231, USA.
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20
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C. Harris R, Dunnett M, Greenhaff PL. Carnosine and taurine contents in individual fibres of human vastus lateralis muscle. J Sports Sci 1998. [DOI: 10.1080/026404198366443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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21
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Ensunsa JL, Hirschberger LL, Stipanuk MH. Catabolism of cysteine, cystine, cysteinesulfinate, and OTC by isolated perfused rat hindquarter. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1993; 264:E782-9. [PMID: 8098909 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.1993.264.5.e782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The metabolism of cysteine and related compounds was investigated in the isolated perfused hindquarter of the rat. An erythrocyte-based perfusion medium was used; use of a perfluorochemical emulsion, FC-43, resulted in apparent chemical oxidation of cysteine, whereas bovine erythrocytes did not appear to contribute significantly to the metabolism of cysteine. Rat skeletal muscle perfused with L-[35S]cysteine, L-[35S]cystine, L-[35S]cysteinesulfinate, or L-2-oxo-[35S]thiazolidine-4-carboxylate (OTC) for 2 h produced [35S]sulfate and [35S]taurine. In all cases, the partitioning of cysteine or cysteinesulfinate between metabolism to taurine and sulfate was similar, suggesting that cysteine metabolism in hindquarter may occur via formation and catabolism of cysteinesulfinate by either cysteinesulfinate decarboxylase or aspartate (cysteine-sulfinate) aminotransferase. However, the activity of cysteine dioxygenase was extremely low, suggesting that the conversion of cysteine to cysteinesulfinate may have been non-enzymatic.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Ensunsa
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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22
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Dunnett M, Harris RC, Sewell DA. Taurine content and distribution in equine skeletal muscle. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1992; 52:725-30. [PMID: 1455166 DOI: 10.3109/00365519209115518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Taurine (TAU) is found in large but variable amounts in the skeletal muscles of many species. It has been reported that slow twitch muscles in the rat exhibit higher TAU levels than fast twitch muscles. Variation in muscle taurine content may be attributable to differences in the fibre type composition of different muscles. TAU content (mmol kg-1 dry muscle) and percentage type-1, type-2A, and type-2B fibre section area (f.s.a.) were measured in muscle samples taken from up to six sites in the middle gluteal muscle of four horses and one pony at post mortem and in biopsy samples taken from twenty Thoroughbred horses in race training. TAU was positively correlated to type-1 f.s.a. (r = 0.94, p < 0.001) in both post mortem samples and biopsies from horses in race-training. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the TAU content of individual fibre types when present at 100%. TAU is almost exclusively localized in type-1 fibres. The TAU content of type-1 and type-2A fibres was estimated to be 45.4 mmol kg-1 d.m. and 4.5 mmol kg-1 d.m. respectively in the post mortem horses, and 32.4 mmol kg-1 d.m. and 7.9 mmol kg-1 d.m. respectively in the horses in training. TAU was estimated to be absent from type-2B fibres in both horse groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Dunnett
- Department of Physiology, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK
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23
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Quesada O, Lu P, Sturman JA. Taurine distribution in the cat muscle: an immunohistochemical study. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1992; 315:99-104. [PMID: 1509969 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-3436-5_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- O Quesada
- Department of Developmental Biochemistry, Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314
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24
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Lima L, Matus P, Drujan B. Differential taurine uptake in central and peripheral regions of goldfish retina. J Neurosci Res 1991; 28:422-7. [PMID: 1906945 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.490280315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The transport system of taurine was investigated in fragments of goldfish retina prepared from the total tissue and from concentric regions: center and periphery. A high-affinity, saturable, sodium-dependent system was demonstrated in the three types of fragments. The Km for one-site analysis was similar in the two regions and the total retina. The analysis for two sites revealed a significant higher Km for the high-affinity site in fragments from the central region. The maximal uptake rate was higher in the central zone than in the total retina or the periphery. The Hill slopes obtained from saturation experiments of fragments of total retina, center, and periphery were similar to one other and near to 1. The slope of the time course uptake was intermediate for total retina and higher in the center than in the periphery. Hypotaurine and beta-alanine were found to inhibit taurine uptake, but GABA was a weak inhibitor. The values of Ki for hypotaurine by one- and two-site analysis were lower in the central region. The disruption of photoreceptors by shaking did not modify significantly the uptake of the amino acid. Remotion of endogenous taurine by dialysis of central and peripheral fragments increased the uptake in the periphery, but not in the center. The differences observed among the three samples revealed less affinity and high capacity for taurine uptake in the center, plus a higher sensitivity of inhibition. In addition, the peripheral zone had a greater affinity for taurine, and the maximal velocity of the entrance seems to be inhibited by the higher concentration of the amino acid in this zone. These observations may reflect differences between proliferating and non-proliferating regions of the retina (i.e., periphery and center).
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lima
- Laboratorio de Neuroquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
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25
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Airaksinen EM, Paljärvi L, Partanen J, Collan Y, Laakso R, Pentikäinen T. Taurine in normal and diseased human skeletal muscle. Acta Neurol Scand 1990; 81:1-7. [PMID: 2330810 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1990.tb00923.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Taurine content of 199 clinical muscle biopsies was determined and correlated to histometric data of 121 cases. Taurine concentration in muscles was markedly dependent on fiber type distribution, taurine being more abundant in the slow, oxidative type 1 fibers than in the type 2 fibers. Taurine concentration rose slightly with age and tended to be higher in denervations, muscular dystrophies and myotonias, but the differences from the control values were non-significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Airaksinen
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Kuopio, Finland
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26
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Horn LW. L-glutamate transport in internally dialyzed barnacle muscle fibers. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1989; 257:C442-50. [PMID: 2782388 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.1989.257.3.c442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The transport of L-glutamate (Glu) by single muscle fibers of Balanus nubilus was studied by means of internal dialysis in an effort to obtain transport data under well-defined intracellular conditions. It is shown that the method effectively controls the sarcoplasmic amino acid composition and Glu metabolism. It was found that the classic neutral amino acid transport systems are either absent or inactive, while Glu is strongly transported by a single system. Nonsaturable Glu "leak" is small relative to mediated transport. Glu influx under 0-trans conditions obeys simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics and shows simple competition with aspartate. Influx is strictly dependent on external Na. Trans-Na reduces influx, whereas trans-Glu has a small stimulatory effect. The preparation may serve as a general model for muscle Glu transport and can be used for a thorough study of the kinetic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- L W Horn
- Department of Physiology, Temple University Health Science Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140
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27
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Iwata H, Koyama Y, Baba A. Depolarization increases chloride-dependent glutamate sequestration in synaptic membranes of rat cerebral cortex. J Neurochem 1989; 52:354-9. [PMID: 2562987 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1989.tb09129.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
To assess the functions of Cl- -dependent glutamate "binding" (Cl- -dependent glutamate uptake) in synaptic membranes, possible effects of depolarization on the uptake were examined. When rat cerebral cortical slices were preincubated with depolarizing agents such as veratrine (7 micrograms/ml), 10 microM aconitine, 56 mM K+, and 50 microM monensin, [3H]glutamate uptake by the crude synaptic membranes, which were subsequently prepared from the pretreated slices, was increased by 60-85%. Stimulation of the glutamate uptake by predepolarization was dependent on Na+ but not on Ca2+. The bindings of gamma-[3H]aminobutyric acid and 5-[3H]hydroxytryptamine were not significantly affected by the predepolarization. Veratrine pretreatment increased the maximal density of the glutamate uptake sites without affecting the affinity for glutamate. Several characteristics of the uptake sites increased by the veratrine pretreatment coincided with those of Cl- -dependent glutamate uptake sites. Na+-dependent glutamate binding (Na+-dependent glutamate uptake) to the membranes was not affected by pretreatment with veratrine. The content of endogenous glutamate and the noninulin space in the membrane fractions were not changed by the predepolarization. The increase in the glutamate uptake induced by pretreatment with high K+ was reversible: it returned to the control level after a second incubation of the slices in control medium. These results suggest that the Cl- -dependent glutamate sequestration system in synaptic membranes is regulated by the membrane potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Iwata
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Japan
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28
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Matsuda T, Tonomura H, Baba A, Iwata H. Difference in thiamine metabolism between extensor digitorum longus and soleus muscles. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1989; 94:399-403. [PMID: 2556242 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(89)90363-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
1. Thiamine diphosphate level was higher in soleus muscle than in extensor digitorum longus muscle in various animals, whereas thiamine triphosphate level was less in the former muscle than in the latter except for mouse. 2. 2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, transketolase and thiamine pyrophosphokinase activities were higher in soleus muscle than in extensor digitorum longus in rat and guinea pig. 3. The differences between rat two muscle phenotypes in thiamine diphosphate, but not thiamine triphosphate, level and the thiamine-related enzyme activities disappeared after denervation. 4. Tenotomy had little effect on thiamine phosphate levels and the thiamine-related enzyme activities in rat skeletal muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Matsuda
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Japan
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29
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Iwata H, Kim BK, Fukui Y, Baba A. Neural regulation of taurine transport in skeletal muscle. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1987; 217:199-205. [PMID: 3434420 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-0405-8_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- H Iwata
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Japan
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30
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Kim BK, Baba A, Iwata H. Taurine transport in chronically stimulated fast- and slow-twitch muscles of the rat. JAPANESE JOURNAL OF PHARMACOLOGY 1986; 42:441-6. [PMID: 3820861 DOI: 10.1254/jjp.42.441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Indirect stimulation via the sciatic nerve, 10 or 100 Hz stimulus trains of 1 sec duration, applied every 3 sec, 8 hr/day for 1-4 weeks increased taurine concentration of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL, fast-twitch) muscle of the rat. The uptake of [3H]-taurine into the EDL and tibialis anterior (TA, fast-twitch) muscle was also increased by the stimulation. Concentration and uptake of taurine in the soleus muscle (SL, slow-twitch) did not change by chronic 10 Hz stimulation. Taurine concentration in the SL muscle was significantly reduced by chronic 100 Hz stimulation. This study shows that chronic nerve stimulation increases the uptake of taurine in the fast-twitch muscles, but not in the slow-twitch muscle.
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