Gender-specific aspects of treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in primary and secondary prevention

Reproductive factors in relation to heart failure in women: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The biological mechanisms underlying the sex-related differences in risk of heart failure are still not well understood. The aim of this review was to provide an overview of the current evidence on the association between reproductive factors and risk of heart failure in women.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted. PubMed and Embase databases were searched for publications on the following reproductive factors as potential risk factors for heart failure in women: age at menarche, duration and frequency of the menstrual cycle, reproductive lifespan, use of contraception, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), pregnancy characteristics (e.g. parity), pregnancy complications (e.g. preeclampsia), induced abortion, history of breastfeeding, fertility status, use of assisted reproductive methods, hysterectomy, age at menopause, and use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT).

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies were eligible for inclusion. Hypertensive pregnancy disorders, preterm delivery or small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants, shorter reproductive duration, and early menopause were risk factors for heart failure in women. It was suggested that PCOS, fertility therapy, gestational diabetes, and age at first pregnancy were not related to risk of heart failure, but a potential relation cannot be fully excluded as most studies were not of sufficient quality. Conflicting results were found for the associations between risk of heart failure and hysterectomy, gravidity and parity, and HRT.

CONCLUSION

Although some reproductive factors were considered risk factors for heart failure in women, the results were mostly conflicting or inconclusive. Further research is needed to confirm and expand the current evidence on the association between reproductive factors and risk of heart failure.

Treatment and outcomes of acute coronary syndromes in women: An analysis of a multicenter quality improvement Chinese study

BACKGROUND

Variations in care and outcomes by sex in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) have been reported worldwide. The aims of this study are to describe ACS management according to sex in China and the effects of a quality improvement program in Chinese male and female ACS patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Clinical Pathways for Acute Coronary Syndromes - Phase 2 (CPACS-2) was a cluster randomized trial to test whether a clinical pathways-based intervention would improve ACS management in China. The study enrolled 15,141 hospitalized patients [4631 (30.6%) were women] from 75 hospitals throughout China between October 2007 and August 2010. The intervention included clinical pathway implementation and performance measurement using standardized indicators with 6 monthly audit-feedback cycles. Eight key performance indicators reflecting in hospital management of ACS were measured. After adjustment for differences in patient characteristics and comorbidities at presentation, women were significantly less likely to undergo coronary angiography when indicated (RR 0.88 [0.85 to 0.92], P<0.001), less likely to receive guideline recommended medical therapies at discharge (RR 0.94 [0.91 to 0.98], P=0.003) and more likely to be hospitalized for shorter (mean difference -0.42 [-0.73 to -0.12] days, P=0.007). However, in-hospital clinical outcomes did not differ by sex. There was no evidence of heterogeneity in the relative effects of the quality improvement initiative by sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex disparities were apparent in some key quality of care indicators for patients with suspected with ACS presenting to hospitals in China. The beneficial effect of the quality improvement program was consistent in women and men.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

http://www.anzctr.org.au/default.aspx. Unique identifier: ACTRN12609000491268.

Non-HDL cholesterol is a good predictor of the risk of increased arterial stiffness in postmenopausal women in an urban Brazilian population

OBJECTIVES:

Increased arterial stiffness is an important determinant of the risk of cardiovascular disease. Lipid profile impairment, especially hypercholesterolemia, is associated with stiffer blood vessels. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine which of the five circulating lipid components (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides) is the best predictor of increased arterial stiffness in an urban Brazilian population.

METHODS:

A random sample of 1,662 individuals from the general population of Vitoria, Brazil (25-64 years), was selected, and lipid components were measured using standard methods. Pulse wave velocity was measured using a non-invasive automatic device, and increased arterial stiffness was defined as a pulse wave velocity ≥10 m/s.

RESULTS:

In men, only total cholesterol (OR=1.59; CI=1.02 to 2.48, p=0.04) was associated with the risk of increased arterial stiffness. In women, HDL-C (OR=1.99; CI=1.18 to 3.35, p=0.01) and non-HDL-C (OR=1.61; CI=1.01 to 2.56, p=0.04) were good predictors of the risk of increased arterial stiffness. However, these associations were only found in postmenopausal women (OR=2.06; CI=1.00 to 4.26, p=0.05 for HDL-C and OR=1.83; CI=1.01 to 3.33, p=0.04 for non-HDL-C).

CONCLUSION:

Our findings indicate that both HDL-C and non-HDL-C are good predictors of the risk of increased arterial stiffness in postmenopausal women in an urban Brazilian population and may be useful tools for assessing the risk of arterial stiffness.

Relationship between age and cardiometabolic index in Japanese men and women

BACKGROUND

Cardiometabolic index (CMI) is a new discriminator of the risk of diabetes and has been reported to be associated with the degree of atherosclerosis. However, it is unknown whether and how age influences CMI.

METHODS

The subjects were Japanese men (n=35684) and women (n=18793) aged ≥35 and ≤70 years who had received periodic health examinations at workplaces. CMI and its association with diabetes were compared among different age groups in men and women.

RESULTS

CMI was much higher in men than in women (median: 1.06 vs. 0.59). In men, CMI was significantly higher in the middle-aged (40-49 and 50-59 years) groups than in the youngest (35-39 years) and oldest (60-70 years) groups and was significantly higher in the oldest group than in the youngest group. In women, CMI tended to be higher with an increase of age, and log-transformed CMI was significantly correlated with age (Pearson's correlation coefficient: 0.235, p<0.01). Both in men and women, odds ratios of CMI (high vs. not high) for diabetes were significantly higher than the reference level in all of the age groups and tended to be lower with an increase of age. The above relationships among age, CMI and diabetes were also found in multivariate analyses adjusting for histories of smoking, alcohol drinking and regular exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Age influences CMI differently in men and women, and the association between CMI and diabetes became weaker with an increase of age both in men and women.

Age- and Gender-Normalized Coronary Incidence and Mortality Risks in Primary and Secondary Prevention

Epidemiologic differences in ischemic heart disease incidence between women and men remain largely unexplained. The reasons of women’s “protection” against coronary artery disease (CAD) are not still clear. However, there are subsets more likely to die of a first myocardial infarction. The purpose of this review is to underline different treatment strategies between genders and describe the role of classical and novel factors defined to evaluate CAD risk and mortality, aimed at assessing applicability and relevance for primary and secondary prevention. Women and men present different age-related risk patterns: it should be important to understand whether standard factors may index CAD risk, including mortality, in different ways and/or whether specific factors might be targeted gender-wise. Take home messages include: HDL-cholesterol levels, higher in pre-menopausal women than in men, are more strictly related to CAD. The same is true for high triglycerides and Lp(a). HDL-cholesterol levels are inversely related to incidence and mortality. In primary prevention the role of statins is not completely ascertained in women although in secondary prevention these agents are equally effective in both genders. Weight and glycemic control are effective to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality in women from middle to older age. Blood pressure is strongly and directly related to CVD mortality, from middle to older age, particularly in diabetic and over weighted women. Kidney dysfunction, defined using UAE and eGFR predicts primary CVD incidence and risk in both genders. In secondary prediction, kidney dysfunction predicts sudden death in women in conjunction with left ventricular ejection fraction evaluation. Serum uric acid does not differentiate gender-related CVD incidences, although it increases with age. Age-related differences between genders have been related to loss of ovarian function traditionally and to lower iron stores more recently. QT interval, physiologically longer in women than men, may be an index of arrhythmic risk in patients with mitral valve prolapse and increased circulating levels of catecholamines. However, there are no large population-based studies to assess this. In conjunction with novel parameters, such as inflammatory markers and reproductive hormones, classical risk score in women may be implemented in the future.

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) deficiency ameliorates sex difference in cardiac contractile function and intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis

Sex difference in cardiac contractile function exists which may contribute to the different prevalence in cardiovascular diseases between genders. However, the precise mechanisms of action behind sex difference in cardiac function are still elusive. Given that sex difference exists in insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) cascade, this study is designed to evaluate the impact of severe liver IGF-1 deficiency (LID) on sex difference in cardiac function. Echocardiographic, cardiomyocyte contractile and intracellular Ca(2+) properties were evaluated including ventricular geometry, fractional shortening, peak shortening, maximal velocity of shortening/relengthening (±dL/dt), time-to-peak shortening (TPS), time-to-90% relengthening (TR(90)), fura-fluorescence intensity (FFI) and intracellular Ca(2+) clearance. Female C57 mice exhibited significantly higher plasma IGF-1 levels than their male counterpart. LID mice possessed comparably low IGF-1 levels in both sexes. Female C57 and LID mice displayed lower body, heart and liver weights compared to male counterparts. Echocardiographic analysis revealed larger LV mass in female C57 but not LID mice without sex difference in other cardiac geometric indices. Myocytes from female C57 mice exhibited reduced peak shortening, ±dL/dt, longer TPS, TR(90) and intracellular Ca(2+) clearance compared with males. Interestingly, this sex difference was greatly attenuated or abolished by IGF-1 deficiency. Female C57 mice displayed significantly decreased mRNA and protein levels of Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchanger, SERCA2a and phosphorylated phospholamban as well as SERCA activity compared with male C57 mice. These sex differences in Ca(2+) regulatory proteins were abolished or overtly attenuated by IGF-1 deficiency. In summary, our data suggested that IGF-1 deficiency may significantly attenuated or mitigate the sex difference in cardiomyocyte contractile function associated with intracellular Ca(2+) regulation.