Agonist and antagonist sensitivity of non-selective cation channel currents evoked by muscarinic receptor stimulation in bovine ciliary muscle cells

The Roles of Transient Receptor Potential Ion Channels in Pathologies of Glaucoma

Transient receptor ion potential (TRP) channels are a cluster of non-selective cation channels present on cell membranes. They are important mediators of sensory signals to regulate cellular functions and signaling pathways. Alterations and dysfunction of these channels could disrupt physiological processes, thus leading to a broad array of disorders, such as cardiovascular, renal and nervous system diseases. These effects position them as potential targets for drug design and treatment. Because TRP channels can mediate processes such as mechanical conduction, osmotic pressure, and oxidative stress, they have been studied in the context of glaucoma. Glaucoma is an irreversible blinding eye disease caused by an intermittent or sustained increase in intraocular pressure (IOP), which results in the apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), optic nerve atrophy and eventually visual field defects. An increasing number of studies have documented that various TRP subfamilies are abundantly expressed in ocular structures, including the cornea, lens, ciliary body (CB), trabecular meshwork (TM) and retina. In alignment with these findings, there is also mounting evidence supporting the potential role of the TRP family in glaucoma progression. Therefore, it is of great interest and clinical significance to gain an increased understanding of these channels, which in turn could shed more light on the identification of new therapeutic targets for glaucoma. Moreover, this role is not understood completely to date, and whether the activation of TRP channels contributes to glaucoma, or instead aggravates progression, needs to be explored. In this manuscript, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research on TRP channels in glaucoma and to suggest novel targets for future therapeutic interventions in glaucoma.

Force-inhibiting effect of Ser/Thr protein phosphatase 2A inhibitors on bovine ciliary muscle

Ciliary muscle is a smooth muscle characterized by a rapid response to muscarinic receptor stimulation and sustained contraction. Although it is evident that these contractions are Ca(2+)-dependent, detailed molecular mechanisms are still unknown. In order to elucidate the role of Ser/Thr protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) in ciliary muscle contraction, we examined the effects of okadaic acid and other PP2A inhibitors on contractions induced by carbachol (CCh) and ionomycin in bovine ciliary muscle strips (BCM). Okadaic acid inhibited ionomycin-induced contraction, while it did not cause significant changes in CCh-induced contraction. Fostriecin showed similar inhibitory effects on the contraction of BCM. On the other hand, rubratoxin A inhibited both ionomycin- and CCh-induced contractions. These results indicated that PP2A was involved at least in ionomycin-induced Ca(2+)-dependent contraction, and that BCM had a unique regulatory mechanism in CCh-induced contraction.

TRPC4- and TRPC4-containing channels

TRPC4 proteins comprise six transmembrane domains, a putative pore-forming region, and an intracellularly located amino- and carboxy-terminus. Among eleven splice variants identified so far, TRPC4α and TRPC4β are the most abundantly expressed and functionally characterized. TRPC4 is expressed in various organs and cell types including the soma and dendrites of numerous types of neurons; the cardiovascular system including endothelial, smooth muscle, and cardiac cells; myometrial and skeletal muscle cells; kidney; and immune cells such as mast cells. Both recombinant and native TRPC4-containing channels differ tremendously in their permeability and other biophysical properties, pharmacological modulation, and mode of activation depending on the cellular environment. They vary from inwardly rectifying store-operated channels with a high Ca(2+) selectivity to non-store-operated channels predominantly carrying Na(+) and activated by Gαq- and/or Gαi-coupled receptors with a complex U-shaped current-voltage relationship. Thus, individual TRPC4-containing channels contribute to agonist-induced Ca(2+) entry directly or indirectly via depolarization and activation of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. The differences in channel properties may arise from variations in the composition of the channel complexes, in the specific regulatory pathways in the corresponding cell system, and/or in the expression pattern of interaction partners which comprise other TRPC proteins to form heteromultimeric channels. Additional interaction partners of TRPC4 that can mediate the activity of TRPC4-containing channels include (1) scaffolding proteins (e.g., NHERF) that may mediate interactions with signaling molecules in or in close vicinity to the plasma membrane such as Gα proteins or phospholipase C and with the cytoskeleton, (2) proteins in specific membrane microdomains (e.g., caveolin-1), or (3) proteins on cellular organelles (e.g., Stim1). The diversity of TRPC4-containing channels hampers the development of specific agonists or antagonists, but recently, ML204 was identified as a blocker of both recombinant and endogenous TRPC4-containing channels with an IC50 in the lower micromolar range that lacks activity on most voltage-gated channels and other TRPs except TRPC5 and TRPC3. Lanthanides are specific activators of heterologously expressed TRPC4- and TRPC5-containing channels but can block individual native TRPC4-containing channels. The biological relevance of TRPC4-containing channels was demonstrated by knockdown of TRPC4 expression in numerous native systems including gene expression, cell differentiation and proliferation, formation of myotubes, and axonal regeneration. Studies of TRPC4 single and TRPC compound knockout mice uncovered their role for the regulation of vascular tone, endothelial permeability, gastrointestinal contractility and motility, neurotransmitter release, and social exploratory behavior as well as for excitotoxicity and epileptogenesis. Recently, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Trpc4 gene was associated with a reduced risk for experience of myocardial infarction.

Transient receptor potential (TRP) gene superfamily encoding cation channels

Transient receptor potential (TRP) non-selective cation channels constitute a superfamily, which contains 28 different genes. In mammals, this superfamily is divided into six subfamilies based on differences in amino acid sequence homology between the different gene products. Proteins within a subfamily aggregate to form heteromeric or homomeric tetrameric configurations. These different groupings have very variable permeability ratios for calcium versus sodium ions. TRP expression is widely distributed in neuronal tissues, as well as a host of other tissues, including epithelial and endothelial cells. They are activated by environmental stresses that include tissue injury, changes in temperature, pH and osmolarity, as well as volatile chemicals, cytokines and plant compounds. Their activation induces, via intracellular calcium signalling, a host of responses, including stimulation of cell proliferation, migration, regulatory volume behaviour and the release of a host of cytokines. Their activation is greatly potentiated by phospholipase C (PLC) activation mediated by coupled GTP-binding proteins and tyrosine receptors. In addition to their importance in maintaining tissue homeostasis, some of these responses may involve various underlying diseases. Given the wealth of literature describing the multiple roles of TRP in physiology in a very wide range of different mammalian tissues, this review limits itself to the literature describing the multiple roles of TRP channels in different ocular tissues. Accordingly, their importance to the corneal, trabecular meshwork, lens, ciliary muscle, retinal, microglial and retinal pigment epithelial physiology and pathology is reviewed.

Examination of signalling pathways involved in muscarinic responses in bovine ciliary muscle using YM-254890, an inhibitor of the Gq/11 protein

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In the ciliary muscle, the tonic component of the contraction produced by cholinergic agonists is highly dependent on Ca2+ provided by influx through non-selective cation channels (NSCCs) opened by stimulation of M3 muscarinic receptors. We examined effects of YM-254890 (YM), a Gq/11-specific inhibitor, on contraction, NSCC currents and [Ca2+]i elevation induced by carbachol (CCh).

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Isometric tension was recorded from ciliary muscle bundles excised from bovine eyes. In ciliary myocytes dispersed with collagenase and cultured for 1-5 days, whole-cell currents were recorded by voltage clamp and the intracellular free Ca2+ concentration [Ca2+]i was monitored using the Fluo-4 fluorophore. Existence and localization of M3 receptors and the alpha subunit of Gq/11 (Galpha(q/11)) were examined by immunofluorescence microscopy using AlexaFluor-conjugated antibodies.

KEY RESULTS

Both phasic and tonic components of contractions evoked by 2 microM CCh were inhibited by YM (3-10 microM) in a dose-dependent manner. In the cultured cells, CCh (0.05-10 microM) evoked an NSCC current as well as an elevation of the [Ca2+]i. Both initial and sustained phases of these CCh-evoked responses were abolished by YM (3-10 microM). Immunostaining of the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane of ciliary myocytes revealed a dense distribution of M3 receptors and Galpha(q/11).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The tonic as well as phasic component of the ciliary muscle contraction appears to be under control of signals conveyed by a G(q/11)-coupled pathway. YM is a useful tool to assess whether Gq/11 is involved in a signal transduction system.