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Subramanian K, Alayo QA, Sedarous M, Nwaiwu O, Okafor PN. Healthcare Disparities Among Homeless Patients Hospitalized With Gastrointestinal Bleeding: A Propensity-Matched, State-Level Analysis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2023; 57:707-713. [PMID: 36730876 DOI: 10.1097/mcg.0000000000001742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
GOALS Examine outcomes among homeless patients admitted with gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, including all-cause mortality and endoscopic intervention rates. BACKGROUND Hospitalizations among homeless individuals have increased steadily since at least 2007 but little is known about GI outcomes in these patients. STUDY The 2010-2014 Healthcare Utilization Project (HCUP) State Inpatient Databases from New York and Florida were used to identify adults admitted with a primary diagnosis of acute upper or lower GI bleed. Homeless patients were 1:3 matched with nonhomeless patients using a propensity-score greedy-matched algorithm. The primary outcome (all-cause in-hospital mortality) and secondary outcomes (30-day readmission rates, endoscopy utilization, length of stay, and total hospitalization costs) were compared. RESULTS We matched 4074 homeless patients with 12,222 nonhomeless patients. Most hospitalizations for homeless individuals were concentrated in 113 (26.4%) of 428 hospitals. Homeless adults were more likely to be younger, male, African American or Hispanic, and on Medicaid. They experienced significantly higher odds of all-cause inpatient mortality compared with nonhomeless patients admitted with GI bleeding (OR 1.37, 95% CI 1.11-1.69). Endoscopy utilization rates were also lower for both upper (OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.55-0.71) and lower (OR 0.76, 95% CI 0.68-0.85) GI bleeding, though upper endoscopy rates within the first 24 hours were comparable (OR 1.11, 95% CI 1.00-1.23). Total hospitalization costs were lower ($9,715 vs. $12,173, P <0.001) while 30-day all-cause readmission rates were significantly higher in the homeless group (14.9% vs. 18.4%, P <0.001). CONCLUSIONS Homeless patients hospitalized for GI bleeding face disparities, including higher mortality rates and lower endoscopy utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Subramanian
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Quazim A Alayo
- Division of Internal Medicine, St. Luke's Hospital, Chesterfield, MO, USA
- Division of Gastroenterology, John T. Milliken Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO
| | - Mary Sedarous
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S4L8
| | - Obioma Nwaiwu
- Department of Medicine, University of Arkansas School of Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
| | - Philip N Okafor
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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What Happened to Disparities in CRC Screening Among FFS Medicare Enrollees Following Medicare Modernization? J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2018; 6:273-291. [PMID: 30232793 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-018-0522-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The Medicare Modernization Act of 2003, implemented in 2006, increased managed care options for seniors. It introduced insurance plans for prescription drug coverage for all Medicare beneficiaries, whether they were enrolled in FFS or managed care (Medicare Advantage) plans. The availability of drug coverage beginning in 2006 served to free up budgets for FFS Medicare enrollees that could be used to make copayments for colorectal cancer (CRC) screening using endoscopy (colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy). In 2007, Medicare eliminated the copayments required by seniors for CRC screening by endoscopy. Later in 2008, CRC screening by colonoscopy became part of the gold standard for CRC screening. This legitimized its use and offered even further encouragement to seniors, who may have been reluctant to undergo the procedure because of the non-pecuniary risks associated with it. In addition, 37 CRC screening interventions occurred during this timeframe to enhance compliance with screening standards. Using multilevel analysis of individuals' endoscopy utilization, derived from 100% FFS Medicare claims, along with county-level market and contextual factors, we compare the periods before and after the MMA (2001-2005 to 2006-2009) to determine whether disparities in the utilization of endoscopic CRC screening occurred or changed over the decade. We examined Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics relative to Whites, and Females relative to Males (with race or ethnicity combined). We examined each state separately for evidence of disparities within states, to avoid confounding by geographic disparities. We expected that the net effect of the policy changes and the targeted interventions over the decade would be to increase CRC screening by endoscopy, reducing disparities. We saw improvements over time (reduced disparities relative to Whites) for Blacks and Hispanics residing in several states, and improvements over time for Females relative to Males in many states. For the vast majority of states, however, disparities persisted with Whites and Males exhibiting greater rates of utilization than other groups. States that undertook the interventions were more likely to have had improvements in disparities or positive disparities for women and minorities. While some gains were made over this time period, the gains were unevenly distributed across the USA and more work needs to be done to reduce remaining disparities.
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Mobley LR, Amaral P, Kuo TM, Zhou M, Bose S. Medicare modernization and diffusion of endoscopy in FFS medicare. HEALTH ECONOMICS REVIEW 2017; 7:13. [PMID: 28281245 PMCID: PMC5344871 DOI: 10.1186/s13561-017-0147-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine how FFS Medicare utilization of endoscopy procedures for colorectal cancer (CRC) screening changed after implementation of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act (MMA) in 2006, which provided subsidized drug coverage and expanded the geographic availability of Medicare managed care plans across the US. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING Using secondary data from 100% FFS Medicare enrollees, we analyzed endoscopy utilization during two intervals, 2001-2005 and 2006-2009. STUDY DESIGN We examined change in predictors of county-level endoscopy utilization rates based on a conceptual model of market supply and demand with spillovers from managed care practices. The equations for each period were estimated jointly in a spatial lag regression model that properly accounts for both place and time effects, allowing robust assessment of changes over time. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS All Medicare FFS enrollees with both Parts A and B coverage who were age 65+, remained alive and living in the same state over the interval were included in the analyses. The later interval used a new cohort defined the same as the earlier interval. 100% Medicare denominator files were also used, providing county of address to use for county-level aggregation. The outcome variable was defined as county-level proportion of enrollees who ever used endoscopy over the interval. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Endoscopy utilization by FFS Medicare increased, and became more accessible across the US. Medicare managed care plan spillovers onto FFS Medicare endoscopy utilization changed over time from a significant negative (restraining) effect in the early period to no significant effect by the later period. CONCLUSIONS The MMA eased budget constraints for seniors, making endoscopic CRC screening more affordable. The MMA policies also strengthened managed care business prospects, and enrollments in Medicare managed care escalated. The change in managed care spillover effects reflects the gradual acceptance of endoscopic CRC screening procedures, as they emerged as the gold standard during the period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee R. Mobley
- Georgia State University, 1 Park Place, Suite 700, Atlanta, GA 30304 USA
| | - Pedro Amaral
- Cedeplar - Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Tzy-Mey Kuo
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA
| | - Mei Zhou
- Georgia State University, 1 Park Place, Suite 700, Atlanta, GA 30304 USA
| | - Srimoyee Bose
- Georgia State University, 1 Park Place, Suite 700, Atlanta, GA 30304 USA
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Mobley LR, Kuo TM. United States Health Policies and Late-stage Breast and colorectal cancer diagnosis: Why such disparities by age? HEALTH ECONOMICS REVIEW 2015; 5:58. [PMID: 26170153 PMCID: PMC4501335 DOI: 10.1186/s13561-015-0058-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Colorectal and breast cancers are the second most common causes of cancer deaths in the US. Population cancer screening rates are suboptimal and many cancers are diagnosed at an advanced stage, which results in increased morbidity and mortality. Younger populations are more likely to be diagnosed at a later stage, and this age disparity is not well understood. We examine the associations between late-stage breast cancer (BC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) diagnoses and multilevel factors, focusing on individual state regulations of insurance and health practitioners, and interactions between such policies and age. We expect state-level regulations are significant predictors of the rates of late-stage diagnosis among younger adults. METHODS We included adults of all ages, with BC or CRC diagnosed between 2004 -2009, obtained from a newly available cancer population database covering 98 % of all known new cancer cases. We included personal characteristics, linked with a set of county and state-level predictors based on residence. We applied multilevel models to robustly examine differences in risk of late-stage cancer diagnosis across age groups (defined as age 65+ or < 65), focusing specifically on the effects of state regulatory factors and their interactions with age. RESULTS Late stage BC diagnoses range from 24 %-36 %, while CRC diagnoses range from 54 %-60 % of newly diagnosed BC or CRC cases across states. After controlling statistically for many confounding factors at three levels, age < 65 is the largest person-level predictor for CRC, while black race is the largest predictor for BC. State regulations of health markets exhibit significant interactions with age groups. CONCLUSIONS The state regulatory climate is an important predictor of late-stage BC and CRC diagnoses, especially among people younger than Medicare eligible age (65). State regulations can enhance the climate of access for younger, less well-insured or uninsured persons who fall outside normative screening guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee R Mobley
- School of Public Health and Andrew Young School of Policy Studie, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Tzy-Mey Kuo
- Lineberger Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Mobley LR, Kuo TM(M. Geographic and Demographic Disparities in Late-stage Breast and Colorectal Cancer Diagnoses Across the US. AIMS Public Health 2015; 2:583-600. [PMID: 27981060 PMCID: PMC5154625 DOI: 10.3934/publichealth.2015.3.583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM In 2009, breast cancer was the most common cancer in women, and colorectal cancer was the third most common cancer in both men and women. Currently, the majority of colorectal and almost 1/3 of breast cancers are diagnosed at an advanced stage in the US, which results in higher morbidity and mortality than would obtain with earlier detection. The incidence of late-stage cancer diagnoses varies considerably across the US, and few analyses have examined the entire US. PURPOSE Using the newly available US Cancer Statistics database representing 98% of the US population, we perform multilevel analysis of the incidence of late-stage cancer diagnoses and translate the findings via bivariate mapping, answering questions related to both Why and Where demographic and geographic disparities in these diagnoses are observed. METHODS To answer questions related to Why disparities are observed, we utilize a three-level, random-intercepts model including person-, local area-, and region- specific levels of influence. To answer questions related to Where disparities are observed, we generate county level robust predictions of late-stage cancer diagnosis rates and map them, contrasting counties ranked in the upper and lower quantiles of all county predicted rates. Bivariate maps are used to spatially translate the geographic variation among US counties in the distribution of both BC and CRC late-stage diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS Empirical modeling results show demographic disparities, while the spatial translation of empirical results shows geographic disparities that may be quite useful for state cancer control planning. Late stage BC and CRC diagnosis rates are not spatially random, manifesting as place-specific patterns that compare counties in individual states to counties across all states. Providing a relative comparison that enables assessment of how results in one state compare with others, this paper is to be disseminated to all state cancer control and central cancer registry program officials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee R Mobley
- Spatial Science and Health Economics, School of Public Health and Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tzy-Mey (May) Kuo
- Lineberger Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Mobley LR, Kuo TM, Traczynski J, Udalova V, Frech HE. Macro-level factors impacting geographic disparities in cancer screening. HEALTH ECONOMICS REVIEW 2014; 4:13. [PMID: 26054402 PMCID: PMC4883991 DOI: 10.1186/s13561-014-0013-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Examine how differences in state regulatory environments predict geographic disparities in the utilization of cancer screening. DATA SOURCES/SETTING 100% Medicare fee-for-service population data from 2001-2005 was developed as multi-year breast (BC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) screening utilization rates in each county in the US. STUDY DESIGN A comprehensive set of supply and demand predictors are used in a multilevel model of county-level cancer screening utilization in the context of state regulatory markets. States dictate insurance mandates/regulations and whether alternative providers (nurse practitioners) can provide preventive care services supplied by MDs. Controlling statistically for the supply of both types of providers, we study the joint effects of two private insurance regulations: one mandating that insureds with serious or chronic health conditions may receive continuity of care from their established physician(s) after changing health insurance plans, and another mandating that external grievance review is an option for all health plan coverage/denial decisions. These private insurance plan regulations are expected to affect the degree of beneficial spillovers from managed care practices, which may have increased area-wide cancer screening rates. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The two private insurance regulations under study were significant predictors impacted by local market conditions. Managed care spillovers in local markets were significantly associated with higher BC screening rates, but only in states lacking the two forms of regulation under study. Spillovers were significantly associated with higher CRC cancer screening rates everywhere, but much higher in the unregulated states. Area poverty dampened screening rates, but less so for CRC screening in the states with these regulations. CONCLUSIONS Two state insurance regulations that empowered consumers with more autonomy to make informed utilization decisions varied across states, and exhibited significant associations with screening rates, which varied with the degree of managed care penetration or poverty in the state's counties. Beneficial spillover effects from managed care practices and negative influences from area poverty are not uniform across the United States. Both variables had stronger associations with CRC than BC screening utilization, as did state regulatory variables. CRC screening by endoscopy was more subject to market and regulatory factors than BC screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee R Mobley
- />School of Public Health and Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA USA
| | - Tzy-Mey Kuo
- />Lineberger Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC USA
| | - Jeffrey Traczynski
- />Department of Economics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822 USA
| | - Victoria Udalova
- />Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706 USA
| | - HE Frech
- />Department of Economics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA USA
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Anderson RT, Yang TC, Matthews SA, Camacho F, Kern T, Mackley HB, Kimmick G, Louis C, Lengerich E, Yao N. Breast cancer screening, area deprivation, and later-stage breast cancer in Appalachia: does geography matter? Health Serv Res 2014; 49:546-67. [PMID: 24117371 PMCID: PMC3976186 DOI: 10.1111/1475-6773.12108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To model the relationship of an area-based measure of a breast cancer screening and geographic area deprivation on the incidence of later stage breast cancer (LSBC) across a diverse region of Appalachia. DATA SOURCE Central cancer registry data (2006-2008) from three Appalachian states were linked to Medicare claims and census data. STUDY DESIGN Exploratory spatial analysis preceded the statistical model based on negative binomial regression to model predictors and effect modification by geographic subregions. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Exploratory spatial analysis revealed geographically varying effects of area deprivation and screening on LSBC. In the negative binomial regression model, predictors of LSBC included receipt of screening, area deprivation, supply of mammography centers, and female population aged>75 years. The most deprived counties had a 3.31 times greater rate of LSBC compared to the least deprived. Effect of screening on LSBC was significantly stronger in northern Appalachia than elsewhere in the study region, found mostly for high-population counties. CONCLUSIONS Breast cancer screening and area deprivation are strongly associated with disparity in LBSC in Appalachia. The presence of geographically varying predictors of later stage tumors in Appalachia suggests the importance of place-based health care access and risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger T Anderson
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Tse-Chang Yang
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Stephen A Matthews
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Fabian Camacho
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Teresa Kern
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Heath B Mackley
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Gretchen Kimmick
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Christopher Louis
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Eugene Lengerich
- Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth UniversityPO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298
- Department of Public Health Science, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Sociology, Center for Social and Demographic Analysis, University at Albany, State University of New YorkAlbany, NY
- Departments of Sociology and Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
- Division of Radiation Oncology, College of Medicine, The Pennsylvania State UniversityHershey, PA
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of MedicineDurham, NC
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA
| | - Nengliang Yao
- Address correspondence to Nengliang Yao, Ph.D., Instructor, Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, College of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, PO Box 980430, Richmond, VA 23298; e-mail:
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