Effects of brocresine (NSD-1055) and cycloheximide on amino acid decarboxylase activities in gastric mucosa of normal and vagally denervated rats

Histamine in the kidneys: what is its role in renal pathophysiology?

Starting with a role for histamine role in renal haemodynamics, evidence has accumulated, over time, suggesting a wider range of actions on renal function and this has renewed interest in the pathophysiological role of histamine in the kidney. Here we provide an up-to-date review of this topic. As the kidney expresses enzymes that synthesize and metabolise histamine, along with its receptors, all the components for histaminergic transmission are present in this tissue. The distribution of histamine receptors matches a wide range of effects. We address the questions of the redundancy of H1 and H2 receptors in renal haemodynamics, the complementary role of H1 and H4 receptors in renal filtration and reabsorption, and the dichotomy between local and neuronal H1 and H3 receptors. Experimental models of renal disease raise the possibility of new therapeutic approaches based on histamine. The effects of histamine on renal function are not yet fully understood and their elucidation is still ongoing. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on New Uses for 21st Century. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v177.3/issuetoc.

Rat stomach ECL cells: mode of activation of histidine decarboxylase

Histidine decarboxylase (HDC) occurs in ECL cells in the oxyntic mucosa of rat stomach. It is activated by gastrin. Refeeding of fasted rats or treatment with the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole promptly raised the serum gastrin concentration and consequently the HDC activity and the HDC protein content of the oxyntic mucosa. The food- and omeprazole-induced increase in HDC mRNA expression in the oxyntic mucosa was modest by comparison. Blockade of translation (cycloheximide) but not transcription (actinomycin D) prevented the postprandial rise in HDC activity. The half-life of HDC activity (after blockade of translation) was 94 min in omeprazole-treated rats and 55 min in fasted controls. The rate of enzyme synthesis was estimated to be 15 times higher in omeprazole-treated rats than in fasted controls. Inhibition of histamine uptake into ECL-cell granules by reserpine, a blocker of the vesicular monoamine transporter type-2, lowered the HDC activity and prevented the gastrin-induced HDC activation. We suggest that HDC activation reflects enhanced transcription, translation and/or posttranslational enzyme activation as well as stabilization, and that a high cytosolic histamine concentration suppresses HDC activation.

Histidine decarboxylase in rat stomach ECL cells: relationship between enzyme activity and different molecular forms

Mammalian HDC mRNA encodes a protein with a molecular mass of 74 kDa. The reported molecular mass for the purified HDC subunit is 53-55 kDa. Western blot analysis of extracts of rat gastric mucosa and fetal rat liver has revealed the presence of at least three different forms of HDC immunoreactivity, having molecular masses of about 74, 63 and 53 kDa. There is evidence from previous studies that full length rat HDC is enzymatically inactive and that activation requires C-terminal truncation. In the present study we examined the various immunoreactive HDC forms in rat oxyntic mucosa and their response to treatments known to affect the HDC activity. Freely fed rats and hypergastrinemic rats (treated with gastrin or the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole) had higher oxyntic mucosal HDC activity and HDC mRNA level than fasted or untreated rats. The difference in HDC activity was greater than the difference in HDC mRNA level. Western blot analysis confirmed the existence of the 74, 63 and 53 kDa HDC forms in the oxyntic mucosa. All three forms were more abundant in the oxyntic mucosa of freely fed and hypergastrinemic rats than in the mucosa of fasted or untreated rats. Of the three HDC forms, the 63 kDa form was the predominant one, the 73 kDa form was quantitatively insignificant by comparison and the 53 kDa form was at or below the limit of detection in fasted rats. The activity of HDC was well correlated to the amount of the 63 kDa HDC form. Administration of cycloheximide to hypergastrinemic rats (undergoing omeprazole treatment) resulted in a rapid decline of the HDC activity (estimated half-life 1 h and 50 min). The 63 kDa HDC form disappeared with a rate that corresponded to the decline in HDC activity. The two other HDC forms seemed to have a slower turnover. Our findings suggest that the 63 kDa form is enzymatically active. The results do not allow any conclusion as to the functional activity of the 74 and 53 kDa forms.

Multiple forms of rat stomach histidine decarboxylase may reflect posttranslational activation of the enzyme

Histidine decarboxylase (HDC) catalyzes the formation of histamine, which takes part in a variety of physiological processes including gastric acid secretion, neurotransmission and inflammation. While purified rat HDC is a homodimer of approximately 54 kDa subunits, molecular cloning of mammalian HDC has revealed that HDC mRNA encodes a 74 kDa protein. This discrepancy in molecular mass may be due to a posttranslational processing of the primary translated product of rat HDC mRNA. In the present study we demonstrate that full-length rat HDC expressed in Escherichia coli or in an in vitro transcription/translation system is enzymatically inactive, while expression of a C-terminus truncated HDC (reducing the molecular mass to 54 kDa) gave rise to a protein with high enzyme activity in the same expression systems. COS-7 cells expressing truncated HDC displayed high HDC activity, whereas COS-7 cells expressing full-length HDC displayed low activity. Western blot analysis of fetal rat liver and oxyntic mucosa of gastrin-stimulated rats revealed the presence of both full-length HDC (approximately 73 kDa) and a approximately 53 kDa subunit form in addition to an intermediate form of about 63 kDa. The results are in line with the view that rat HDC may be produced as an enzymatically inactive proenzyme which is processed to give rise to the active enzyme.

Novel aspects of gastrin-induced activation of histidine decarboxylase in rat stomach ECL cells

The ECL cells in the rat stomach respond to gastrin with secretion of histamine and activation of the histamine-forming enzyme histidine decarboxylase (HDC). In the present study, we have investigated factors that influence gastrin-induced activation of HDC. Gastrin-17 was given by continuous intravenous infusion to fasted and freely fed rats in various doses and for various periods of time. We found that: (1) ECL cells in fasted rats displayed one order of magnitude higher sensitivity to gastrin (3 h infusion) than did ECL cells in fed rats (ED50 0.4 versus 4.0 nmol kg(-1) h(-1)), while the maximum response to gastrin was two times greater in fed rats than in fasted rats; (2) HDC in both fasted and fed rats responded to a high gastrin dose (5 nmol kg(-1) h(-1)) in a biphasic manner with peak activity after 8 h in fasted rats and after 16 h in fed rats. In both groups, the activation was followed by a marked decline in the enzyme activity to almost prestimulation levels 24 h after start of the infusion. A low gastrin dose (0.4 nmol kg(-1) h(-1)) did not induce such a biphasic response. Maximum activation of HDC in fed rats occurred 6 days after starting the infusion of the low gastrin dose and was two times higher than the maximum activation observed after the high gastrin dose; (3) In fasted rats the HDC mRNA level rose in response to the high gastrin dose, peaked after 8 h (twofold increase) and then returned to the prestimulation level. In fed rats the increase was slower, reaching a plateau after 24 h that lasted for 6 days (twofold increase); (4) The translation inhibitor cycloheximide blocked the activation of HDC induced by gastrin (4 h infusion of 5 nmol kg(-1) h(-1)), while the transcription inhibitor actinomycin D, which suppressed the increase in HDC mRNA expression, did not.

Acute responses of rat stomach enterochromaffinlike cells to gastrin: secretory activation and adaptation

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Evidence for gastrin-induced histamine secretion from isolated rat enterochromaffinlike (ECL) cells was presented recently. We have investigated the gastrin-evoked secretory activation and adaptation of ECL cells in intact rats over a time span of a few minutes to several hours.

METHODS

Fasted rats received a maximally effective dose of synthetic human Leu15-gastrin-17 by continuous intravenous infusion. ECL cell ultrastructure and ECL cell-related parameters (e.g., mucosal histamine and pancreastatin concentrations, histidine decarboxylase [HDC] activity, and messenger RNA [mRNA] concentration) were analyzed.

RESULTS

Gastrin reduced the number of cytoplasmic vesicles in ECL cells while reducing the concentrations of histamine and pancreastatin in the oxyntic mucosa. The effects were maximal within a few hours after the start of gastrin infusion. The concentration of pancreastatin in serum was elevated for the duration of the study. The mucosal concentrations of histamine and pancreastatin returned to prestimulation values after 4-6 hours. The HDC activity and mRNA concentration increased progressively until after 6-8 hours of gastrin infusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastrin promptly degranulates the ECL cells, releasing histamine and pancreastatin from the vesicles. Synthesis of histamine and pancreastatin is accelerated, a process associated with renewal of vesicles. The increase in HDC activity and mRNA concentration continues for several hours after restoration of the vesicles.

The biology and physiology of the ECL cell

The enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells, which are the predominant endocrine cell type in the acid-producing part of the vertebrate stomach, are characterized by numerous, electron-lucent vesicles and few electron-dense granules in the cytoplasm. The biological and physiological significance of the ECL cells remains poorly understood. They produce and store histamine and pancreastatin and are thought to produce an as yet unidentified peptide hormone. The most important clue to their function is their willingness to respond to changes in circulating gastrin. The present review presents current knowledge of the biology and physiology of the rat stomach ECL cells. Examination of serially sectioned ECL cells has revealed that the cytoplasmic vesicles almost invariably contain an electron-dense core, suggesting that perhaps the distinction between granules and vesicles is artificial. We propose a life cycle of the secretory organelles in the ECL cells with a progressive development from granules to vesicles. The results showed that the gastrin-evoked release of histamine and pancreastatin was accompanied by loss of vesicles, and that synthesis of histamine and pancreastatin was accelerated by sustained infusion of gastrin, a treatment that was associated with renewal of vesicles. The events described are instrumental in bringing about a change in the "steady state" or "equilibrium" of the ECL cells, from a non-stimulated, resting state to a gastrin-stimulated, active state. This change is attained within six to eight hr. The next "steady state" change is that from "normal-sized" but active ECL cells to "hypertrophic" ECL cells. The increase in cell size is complete after about one week. The gastrin-evoked increase in the ECL cell self-replication rate is maximal after about 10 days, after which time there is a gradual return back to pre-stimulation values. The ECL cell density increases fairly slowly and does not reach maximum (four-fold increase) until after 20 weeks hypergastrinemia. The activity of the histamine-forming enzyme, histidine decarboxylase, is elevated by gastrin and remains elevated for as long as the gastrin stimulus is maintained (the longest time studied was 20 weeks). The physiological significance of the ECL cells is probably related to their capacity to produce and store histamine and an as yet unidentified peptide hormone. The ECL cells are thought to be the source of histamine necessary for the gastrin-evoked acid response. In addition, preliminary evidence suggests that the ECL cells and the anticipated ECL cell hormone play a role in bone formation.

Enterochromaffin-like cells in the rat stomach: effect of alpha-fluoromethylhistidine-evoked histamine depletion. A chemical, histochemical and electron-microscopic study

In the rat, gastric histamine is stored predominantly in the enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells, which are located basally in the oxyntic mucosa. The functional significance of histamine in the ECL cells is a matter of speculation. In this study the effect of depletion of histamine on the properties and ultrastructure of the ECL cells was examined. Histamine synthesis was inhibited with alpha-fluoromethylhistidine (3 mg.kg-1.h-1) given via osmotic minipumps over a period of 24 h. The treatment reduced the histidine decarboxylase activity (approximately 20% remaining) and histamine concentration (less than 20% remaining) in the oxyntic mucosa, as well as the intensity of histamine- and chromogranin A-immunostaining in the ECL cells, compared to control rats. The cytoplasmic (secretory) granules/vesicles were greatly reduced in number and size following alpha-fluoromethylhistidine administration. The histamine immunostaining of the mast cells, which occurs at the mucosal surface and in the submucosa, appeared unaffected. We conclude that ECL cell histamine accounts for at least 80% of the total oxyntic mucosal histamine in the rat and that it represents a more mobile pool than mast cell histamine. The reduction in the number and size of the ECL cell granules/vesicles following histamine depletion is in accord with the idea that they represent the storage site for histamine.

Inhibition of histamine synthesis in brain by alpha-fluoromethylhistidine, a new irreversible inhibitor: in vitro and in vivo studies

alpha-Fluoromethylhistidine (alpha-FMH), a new potent inhibitor of histidine decarboxylase (HD), has been used for in vitro and in vivo studies of brain HD. Following a preincubation with (+)-alpha-FMH, brain HD activity was inhibited in a time-dependent and concentration-dependent manner. The enzyme activity was not restored by overnight dialysis against standard buffer. The (-) antimer of alpha-FMH was ineffective. When injected intraperitoneally in a single dose of 20 mg/kg, (+/-)-alpha-FMH induced a complete loss in HD activity in cerebral cortex and hypothalamus as well as in peripheral tissues, such as stomach. At a dosage of 100 mg/kg (+/-)-alpha-FMH did not alter histamine-N-methyltransferase, DOPA decarboxylase, and glutamate decarboxylase activities. The maximal decrease of HD activity occurred after 2 h in both cerebral cortex and hypothalamus, but the time course of the recovery of enzyme activity was slower in the cerebral cortex. The enzyme activity reached control value within 3 days in hypothalamus and was not fully restored after 4 days in cerebral cortex. Contrasting with the diminished HD activity, a substantial concentration of histamine remained present in five regions of mouse brain. Thus, alpha-FMH is a highly specific irreversible inhibitor of brain HD activity and its efficacy makes it useful to study the physiological role of brain histamine.

Suppression of rat stomach histidine decarboxylase activity by histamine: H2-receptor-mediated feed-back

1. Gastrin activates rat stomach histidine decarboxylase. Exogenous histamine suppressed the basal enzyme activity in unoperated, in nephrectomized, in vagally denervated and in antrectomized rats, and counteracted the pentagastrin-induced enzyme activation in unoperated rats.2. Kinetic analysis of enzyme-catalysed histidine decarboxylation in extracts from untreated vagotomized and from histamine-treated vagotomized rats showed that the histamine-induced suppression of histidine decarboxylase activity probably reflects a reduced enzyme concentration. Moreover, the enzyme half-life in vagotomized rats after treatment with histamine was shorter than the half-life observed after inhibition of enzyme synthesis. These observations suggest that administration of histamine not only inhibits enzyme synthesis but also causes an accelerated rate of elimination of histidine decarboxylase.3. Intravenous infusion of histamine caused marked displacement of the pentagastrin dose-response curve, in a manner suggesting a reduced sensitivity to pentagastrin.4. After H(2)-receptor blockade, but not after H(1)-receptor blockade, histamine was less effective in suppressing the enzyme activity. Furthermore, H(2)-receptor blockade augmented the pentagastrin-induced enzyme activation.5. The results suggest that histamine (via H(2)-receptors) reduces the sensitivity of the histamine-storing cells to gastrin and that H(2)-receptor blockade induces the opposite effects.6. We propose that the histamine-storing cells in the rat stomach are endowed with H(2)-receptors and that exogenous histamine is capable of acting directly on the histamine cells. This may reflect a physiological control mechanism whereby mobilized endogenous histamine modifies its own synthesis and release.

The inhibition of histamine formation in vivo

Histamine formation was measured by the [14C]histamine content of the stomach following injection of [14C]histidine into rats. Carbonyl reagents (e.g. oxyamines) which inactivate pyridoxal phosphate, the co-enzyme of histidine decarboxylase, were the most effective inhibitors of histamine formation in vivo. Although the oximes prepared from imidazol-4(5)-ylmethoxyamine and pyridoxal or pyridoxal phosphate cannot inactivate the co-enzyme, they proved sufficiently potent to merit further study as inhibitors of histamine formation in vivo.