Fluvastatin inhibits expression of the chemokine MDC/CCL22 induced by interferon-gamma in HaCaT cells, a human keratinocyte cell line

Polyopes affinis Suppressed IFN-γ- and TNF-α-Induced Inflammation in Human Keratinocytes via Down-Regulation of the NF-κB and STAT1 Pathways

Polyopes affinis is a red algal species commonly found on the South coast and near Jeju Island, Korea. This study aimed to determine whether P. affinis extracts can inhibit the pathogenesis of T-helper-2 (Th2)-mediated inflammation in a human keratinocyte cell line of atopic dermatitis (AD). Cells were incubated with 10 ng/mL of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and 10 ng/mL of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) at various concentrations of PAB (10, 30, and 60 µg/mL) and PAA (100, 500, and 1000 µg/mL) extracts. A gene-ontology (GO)-enrichment analysis revealed that PAB significantly enriched the genes associated with biological processes such as cell adhesion, immune response, inflammation, and chemokine-mediated pathways. PAB suppressed the expression of the secretory proteins and mRNAs that are associated with the thymus and the production of activation-regulated chemokines (TARC/CCL17) and macrophage-derived chemokines (MDC/CCL22). The effect of the extract on mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) was related to its inhibition of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 production by blocking NF-κB and STAT1 activation. These results suggest that seaweed extract may improve AD by regulating pro-inflammatory chemokines. In conclusion, we first confirmed the existence of phloroglucinol, a polyphenol formed from a precursor called phlorotannin, which is present in PAB, and this result proved the possibility of PAB being used as a treatment for AD.

The DPA-derivative 11S, 17S-dihydroxy 7,9,13,15,19 (Z,E,Z,E,Z)-docosapentaenoic acid inhibits IL-6 production by inhibiting ROS production and ERK/NF-κB pathway in keratinocytes HaCaT stimulated with a fine dust PM10

11 S, 17S-dihydroxy 7,9,13,15,19 (Z,E,Z,E,Z)-docosapentaenoic acid (DoPE) is a derivative of docosapentaenoic acid, a specialized pro-resolving mediator of inflammation such as lipoxins, resolvins, maresins, and protectins. PM₁₀ is a fine dust particle that induces oxidative stress, DNA damage, inflammation, aging, and cancer. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of DoPE, however, has not yet been elucidated. In these studies, we investigated whether DoPE has anti-inflammatory effects in human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. We demonstrated that DoPE suppressed PM₁₀-induced expressions of IL-6 mRNA and protein in human HaCaT keratinocytes. We also investigated the modulating effects of DoPE on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). ROS production, extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, and translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) p65 and NF-kB activity were suppressed by DoPE in PM₁₀-stimulated HaCaT cells. Collectively, our results demonstrated that DoPE inhibited IL-6 expression by reducing ROS generation, suppressing ERK phosphorylation, and inhibiting translocation of NF-kB p65 and NF-kB activity in PM₁₀-stimulated HaCaT cells, suggesting that DoPE can be useful for the resolution of the inflammation caused by IL-6.

Polymeric versus lipid nanocapsules for miconazole nitrate enhanced topical delivery: in vitro and ex vivo evaluation

Nanocapsules can be equated to other nanovesicular systems in which a drug is entrapped in a void containing liquid core surrounded by a coat. The objective of the present study was to investigate the potential of polymeric and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs) as innovative carrier systems for miconazole nitrate (MN) topical delivery. Polymeric nanocapsules and LNCs were prepared using emulsification/nanoprecipitation technique where the effect of poly(ε-caprolactone (PCL) and lipid matrix concentrations with respect to MN were assessed. The resulted nanocapsules were examined for their average particle size, zeta potential, %EE, and in vitro drug release. Optimum formulation in both polymeric and lipidic nanocapsules was further subjected to anti-fungal activity and ex vivo permeation tests. Based on the previous results, nanoencapsulation strategy into polymeric and LNCs created formulations of MN with slow biphasic release, high %EE, and improved stability, representing a good approach for the delivery of MN. PNCs were best fitted to Higuchi’s diffusion while LNCs followed Baker and Lonsdale model in release kinetics. The encapsulated MN either in PNCs or LNCs showed higher cell viability in WISH amniotic cells in comparison with free MN. PNCs showed less ex vivo permeation. PNCs were accompanied by high stability and more amount drug deposition (32.2 ± 3.52 µg/cm²) than LNCs (12.7 ± 1.52 µg/cm²). The antifungal activity of the PNCs was high 19.07 mm compared to 11.4 mm for LNCs. In conclusion, PNCs may have an advantage over LNCs by offering dual action for both superficial and deep fungal infections.

Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Allergic Effects of Saponarin and Its Impact on Signaling Pathways of RAW 264.7, RBL-2H3, and HaCaT Cells

Saponarin{5-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-6-[3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]-7-[3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxychromen-4-one}, a flavone found in young green barley leaves, is known to possess antioxidant, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective effects. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and skin-protective effects of saponarin were investigated to evaluate its usefulness as a functional ingredient in cosmetics. In lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 (murine macrophage) cells, saponarin (80 μM) significantly inhibited cytokine expression, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. Saponarin (80 μM) also inhibited the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 involved in the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells. Saponarin (40 μM) significantly inhibited β-hexosaminidase degranulation as well as the phosphorylation of signaling effectors (Syk, phospholipase Cγ1, ERK, JNK, and p38) and the expression of inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13, COX-2, and FcεRIα/γ) in DNP-IgE- and DNP-BSA-stimulated RBL-2H3 (rat basophilic leukemia) cells. In addition, saponarin (100 μM) significantly inhibited the expression of macrophage-derived chemokine, thymus and activation-regulated chemokine, IL-33, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, and the phosphorylation of signaling molecules (ERK, p38 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 [STAT1]) in TNF-α- and interferon (IFN)-γ-stimulated HaCaT (human immortalized keratinocyte) cells. Saponarin (100 μM) also significantly induced the expression of hyaluronan synthase-3, aquaporin 3, and cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (LL-37) in HaCaT cells, which play an important role as skin barriers. Saponarin remarkably inhibited the essential factors involved in the inflammatory and allergic responses of RAW264.7, RBL-2H3, and HaCaT cells, and induced the expression of factors that function as physical and chemical skin barriers in HaCaT cells. Therefore, saponarin could potentially be used to prevent and relieve immune-related skin diseases, including atopic dermatitis.

Development of novel alternative hair dyes to hazardous para-phenylenediamine

Most of the permanent hair dye products contain p-phenylenediamine (PPD), a well-known skin sensitizer. PPD may cause cutaneous reactions and leads to allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), a condition with major medical and financial repercussions. Hair dye-induced ACD represents a growing concern both for consumers and the cosmetics industry. In this study we introduced novel side chains on the PPD molecule with the goal of overcoming the hazard potential of PPD. Our strategy relies on the replacement of the colorless PPD with new, larger and intrinsically colorled PPD derivatives to reduce dermal penetration and thus the skin sensitization potential. We synthesized two oligomers with bulky side-chains, which displayed 7-8 times lower cytotoxicity than PPD, a significantly weaker sensitization potential (22.0 % and 23.8 % versus 55.5 % for PPD) in the Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay, minimal cumulative penetration through excised skin and an intrinsic ability to colour and preserve the nuance when applied on bleached hair. The lower skin permeation and sensitizing potential are absolutely crucial and give a clear advantage of our products over other standards. These novel PPD hair dyes show significantly less hazard potential than PPD and may, upon further risk assessment studies, replace PPD in consumer care products.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ethanol extract from the leaves and shoots of Cedrela odorata L. in cytokine-stimulated keratinocytes

Cedrela odorata L. is a native plant of the Amazon region. The bark is used in folk remedies for the treatment of diarrhea, vomiting, fever and inflammation. Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory skin disease accompanied by itching. It is a complex disease involving environmental factors and genetic factors. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects of C. odorata L. methanol extract (COEE) on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interferon (IFN)-γ-stimulated HaCaT keratinocyte cells were investigated. ELISA and RT-PCR analysis revealed that the extract had anti-inflammatory effects, and reduced the interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 levels of the HaCaT cells. In addition, COEE exhibited anti-allergic effects, comprising a reduction in the thymus and activation-regulated chemokine and macrophage-derived chemokine levels. In addition, pathway analysis and comparison with Bay11-7082 indicated that these effects are due to the inhibition of nuclear factor (NF)-κB in TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT cells. Therefore, the results of the present study suggest that COEE has anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties in TNF-α and IFN-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells, which are associated with the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines via the NF-κB pathway.

Disentangling the Complexity of a Hexa-Herbal Chinese Medicine Used for Inflammatory Skin Conditions-Predicting the Active Components by Combining LC-MS-Based Metabolite Profiles and in vitro Pharmacology

Objectives: The purpose of this study is to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of a hexa-herbal Chinese formula (HHCF) using spontaneously immortalized human epidermal keratinocytes (HaCaT) and to predict the active components by correlating the LC-MS-based metabolite profiles of the HHCF and its 12 varied formulae with their anti-inflammatory activity using partial least-squares regression analysis. Methods: The HHCF comprises the rootstock of Scutellaria baicalensis, Rheum tanguticum, Sophora flavescens, the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus, the bark of Phellodendron chinense, and the fruit of Kochia scoparia in equal proportions. Its 12 varied formulae were developed by uniform design with varied proportions of the component botanical drugs. The decoctions of the HHCF and its 12 varied formulae were profiled using liquid chromatography (LC) combined with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (MS) and their effects on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α -plus-interferon (IFN)-γ-induced C-C motif chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17) production in HaCaT were investigated. Partial least-squares regression analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between the LC-MS-based metabolite profiles of the decoctions to anti-CCL17 production in HaCaT. Results: Compounds with potential to promote anti-CCL17 production in HaCaT were identified (e.g., berberine, pyrogallol and catechin dimers) as a result of the developed model and their potential to act as anti-inflammatory agents were also supported by relevant literature. Conclusion: This promising approach should assist in the screening process of active components from complex Chinese herbal preparations and will better inform the necessary pharmacological experiments to take forward.

Allopurinol suppresses expression of the regulatory T-cell migration factors TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 in HaCaT keratinocytes via restriction of nuclear factor-κB activation

Recent studies have shown that sparse distribution of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the skin might be involved in the onset of severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions such as Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Treg migration toward epithelial cells is regulated by certain chemokines, including TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22. In this study, we analyzed the effect of allopurinol (APN), a drug known to cause severe adverse reactions, on the expression of factors affecting Treg migration and the mechanisms involved. APN inhibited the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α- and interferon (IFN)-γ-associated expression of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 mRNA in HaCaT cells in a dose-dependent manner. Consistent with this, APN also suppressed TNF-α- and IFN-γ-induced production of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 proteins and the migration of C-C chemokine receptor type 4-positive cells. Activity of the transcription factors NF-κB and STAT1, which are involved in TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 expression, was also investigated. APN inhibited activation of NF-κB, but not that of STAT1. Furthermore, it restricted p38 MAPK phosphorylation. These results suggest that APN inhibits TNF-α- and IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 production through downregulation of p38 MAPK and NF-κB signaling, resulting in the sparse distribution of Tregs in the skin of patients with APN-associated Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis.

Statin and Bisphosphonate Induce Starvation in Fast-Growing Cancer Cell Lines

Statins and bisphosphonates are increasingly recognized as anti-cancer drugs, especially because of their cholesterol-lowering properties. However, these drugs act differently on various types of cancers. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of statins and bisphosphonates on the metabolism (NADP⁺/NADPH-relation) of highly proliferative tumor cell lines from different origins (PC-3 prostate carcinoma, MDA-MB-231 breast cancer, U-2 OS osteosarcoma) versus cells with a slower proliferation rate like MG-63 osteosarcoma cells. Global gene expression analysis revealed that after 6 days of treatment with pharmacologic doses of the statin simvastatin and of the bisphosphonate ibandronate, simvastatin regulated more than twice as many genes as ibandronate, including many genes associated with cell cycle progression. Upregulation of starvation-markers and a reduction of metabolism and associated NADPH production, an increase in autophagy, and a concomitant downregulation of H3K27 methylation was most significant in the fast-growing cancer cell lines. This study provides possible explanations for clinical observations indicating a higher sensitivity of rapidly proliferating tumors to statins and bisphosphonates.

Simvastatin potentiates doxorubicin activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Simvastatin is a low density lipoprotein-lowering drug that is widely used to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease by inhibiting the mevalonate pathway. Simvastatin also exhibits inhibitory effects on a number of types of cancer. In the present study, the effects of simvastatin on the activity of doxorubicin in the breast cancer MCF-7 cell line, and the mechanisms by which this interaction occurs were investigated. The effect of simvastatin and doxorubicin treatment, alone and in combination, on the growth of MCF-7 cells was evaluated by a sulforhodamine B and colony formation assay. To delineate the mechanisms of cell death, the following parameters were measured: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production using the fluorescence probe dihydroethidium; caspase 3 activity by the fluorometry method; gene expression by quantitative polymerase chain reaction; and apoptotic- and proliferative-related protein levels by western blotting. MCF-7 cell proliferation was significantly suppressed by 24-48 h treatment with simvastatin alone. Doses of 10-50 µM simvastatin also enhanced the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin against MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner, and decreased the colony-forming ability of MCF-7 cells. Simvastatin alone or in combination with doxorubicin significantly increased ROS levels. Combination treatment significantly decreased expression of the cell cycle regulatory protein Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 and numerous downstream proteins including cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) 2, Cdk4 and Cdk6. Additionally, simvastatin in combination with doxorubicin significantly induced expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, increased cytochrome c and caspase 3 expression and reduced cyclin D1 expression. In conclusion, simvastatin acts synergistically with the anticancer drug doxorubicin against MCF-7 cells, possibly through a downregulation of the cell cycle or induction of apoptosis. Although additional studies are required, simvastatin and doxorubicin combination may be a reasonable regimen for the treatment of breast cancer.

Anti-inflammatory actions of herbal formula Gyejibokryeong-hwan regulated by inhibiting chemokine production and STAT1 activation in HaCaT cells

Gyejibokryeong-hwan (GJBRH; Keishi-bukuryo-gan in Japan and Guizhi Fuling Wan in China) is a traditional herbal formula comprising five medicinal herbs and is used to treat climacteric syndrome. GJBRH has been shown to exhibit biological activity against diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, atherosclerosis, ischemia, and cancer. However, there is no scientific evidence of its activities against skin inflammation, including atopic dermatitis. We used the HaCaT human keratinocyte cell line to investigate the effects of GJBRH on skin inflammation. No significant cytotoxicity was observed in cells treated with GJBRH up to a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. Exposure to the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) significantly increased HaCaT cell production of the following chemokines: macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC)/CCL22; regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES)/CCL5; and interleukin-8 (IL-8). In contrast, GJBRH significantly reduced the production of MDC, RANTES, and IL-8 compared with control cells simulated with TNF-α and IFN-γ. Consistently, GJBRH suppressed the mRNA expression of MDC, RANTES, and IL-8 in TNF-α and IFN-γ-treated cells. Treatment with GJBRH markedly inhibited phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) in HaCaT cells stimulated with TNF-α and IFN-γ. Our findings indicate that GJBRH impairs TNF-α and IFN-γ-mediated inflammatory chemokine production and STAT1 phosphorylation in keratinocytes. We suggest that GJBRH may be a potent therapeutic agent for inflammatory skin disorders.

Xanthii fructus extract inhibits TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced Th2-chemokines production via blockade of NF-κB, STAT1 and p38-MAPK activation in human epidermal keratinocytes

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xanthii fructus (XF) is an herb widely used in medicine for the treatment of a variety of inflammatory pathologies. Chemokines are important mediators of cell migration, and thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22) are well-known typical inflammatory chemokines involved in atopic dermatitis (AD). However, the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of XF have not been elucidated in tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-stimulated HaCaT cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of XF on TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced production of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 in HaCaT cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

HaCaT cells were stimulated by TNF-α/IFN-γ in the presence of XF. TRAC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 productions were monitored by ELISA on the cell culture supernatant and by RT-PCR on total RNA extract. We use immunoblotting to analyze the effect of XF on activation of the NF-κB, STAT1 and MAPK pathways.

RESULTS

Ethanol extract of XF (EXF) inhibited mRNA expression and production of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 induced by TNF-α/IFN-γ in a dose-dependent manner. It also significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced activation of NF-κB, STAT1 and p38-MAPK. Furthermore, we observed that p38-MAPK contributes to the inhibition of TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 production by blocking NF-κB and STAT1 activation in HaCaT cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that developing therapeutic applications XF for the prevention of inflammatory skin diseases are feasible.

Dieckol, a Component of Ecklonia cava, Suppresses the Production of MDC/CCL22 via Down-Regulating STAT1 Pathway in Interferon-γ Stimulated HaCaT Human Keratinocytes

Macrophage-derived chemokine, C-C motif chemokine 22 (MDC/CCL22), is one of the inflammatory chemokines that controls the movement of monocytes, monocyte-derived dendritic cells, and natural killer cells. Serum and skin MDC/CCL22 levels are elevated in atopic dermatitis, which suggests that the chemokines produced from keratinocytes are responsible for attracting inflammatory lymphocytes to the skin. A major signaling pathway in the interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-stimulated inflammation response involves the signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1). In the present study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of dieckol and its possible action mechanisms in the category of skin inflammation including atopic dermatitis. Dieckol inhibited MDC/CCL22 production induced by IFN-γ (10 ng/mL) in a dose dependent manner. Dieckol (5 and 10 μM) suppressed the phosphorylation and the nuclear translocation of STAT1. These results suggest that dieckol exhibits anti-inflammatory effect via the down-regulation of STAT1 activation.

(+)-Nootkatone inhibits tumor necrosis factor α/interferon γ-induced production of chemokines in HaCaT cells

Chemokines are important mediators of cell migration, and thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22) are well-known typical inflammatory chemokines involved in atopic dermatitis (AD). (+)-Nootkatone is the major component of Cyperus rotundus. (+)-Nootkatone has antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, and antiplatelet activities. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of (+)-nootkatone on tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)/interferon γ (IFN-γ)-induced expression of Th2 chemokines in HaCaT cells. We found that (+)-nootkatone inhibited the TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced expression of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 mRNA in HaCaT cells. It also significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and protein kinase Cζ (PKCζ). Furthermore, we showed that PKCζ and p38 MAPK contributed to the inhibition of TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 expression by blocking IκBα degradation in HaCaT cells. Taken together, these results suggest that (+)-nootkatone may suppress TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 expression in HaCaT cells by inhibiting of PKCζ and p38 MAPK signaling pathways that lead to activation of NF-κB. We propose that (+)-nootkatone may be a useful therapeutic candidate for inflammatory skin diseases such as AD.

Autophagy contributes to apoptosis in A20 and EL4 lymphoma cells treated with fluvastatin

Convincing evidence indicates that statins stimulate apoptotic cell death in several types of proliferating tumor cells in a cholesterol-lowering-independent manner. However, the relationship between apoptosis and autophagy in lymphoma cells exposed to statins remains unclear. The objective of this study was to elucidate the potential involvement of autophagy in fluvastatin-induced cell death of lymphoma cells. We found that fluvastatin treatment enhanced the activation of pro-apoptotic members such as caspase-3 and Bax, but suppressed the activation of anti-apoptotic molecule Bcl-2 in lymphoma cells including A20 and EL4 cells. The process was accompanied by increases in numbers of annexin V alone or annexin V/PI double positive cells. Furthermore, both autophagosomes and increases in levels of LC3-II were also observed in fluvastatin-treated lymphoma cells. However, apoptosis in fluvastatin-treated lymphoma cells could be blocked by the addition of 3-methyladenine (3-MA), the specific inhibitor of autophagy. Fluvastatin-induced activation of caspase-3, DNA fragmentation, and activation of LC3-II were blocked by metabolic products of the HMG-CoA reductase reaction, such as mevalonate, farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). These results suggest that autophagy contributes to fluvastatin-induced apoptosis in lymphoma cells, and that these regulating processes require inhibition of metabolic products of the HMG-CoA reductase reaction including mevalonate, FPP and GGPP.

Selective inhibition by simvastatin of IRF3 phosphorylation and TSLP production in dsRNA-challenged bronchial epithelial cells from COPD donors

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Statin treatment may ameliorate viral infection-induced exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which exhibit Th2-type bronchial inflammation. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), a hub cytokine switching on Th2 inflammation, is overproduced in viral and dsRNA-stimulated bronchial epithelial cells from COPD donors. Hence, TSLP may be causally involved in exacerbations. This study tests the hypothesis that simvastatin inhibits dsRNA-induced TSLP.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Epithelial cells, obtained by bronchoscopy from COPD (n = 7) and smoker control (n = 8) donors, were grown and stimulated with a viral infection and danger signal surrogate, dsRNA (10 μg·mL(-1) ). Cells were treated with simvastatin (0.2-5 μg·mL(-1) ), with or without mevalonate (13-26 μg·mL(-1) ), or dexamethasone (1 μg·mL(-1) ) before dsRNA. Cytokine expression and production, and transcription factor (IRF3 and NF-κB) activation were determined.

KEY RESULTS

dsRNA induced TSLP, TNF-α, CXCL8 and IFN-β. TSLP was overproduced in dsRNA-exposed COPD cells compared with control. Simvastatin, but not dexamethasone, concentration-dependently inhibited dsRNA-induced TSLP. Unexpectedly, simvastatin acted independently of mevalonate and did not affect dsRNA-induced NF-κB activation nor did it reduce production of TNF-α and CXCL8. Instead, simvastatin inhibited dsRNA-induced IRF3 phosphorylation and generation of IFN-β.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Independent of mevalonate and NF-κB, previously acknowledged anti-inflammatory mechanisms of pleiotropic statins, simvastatin selectively inhibited dsRNA-induced IRF3 activation and production of TSLP and IFN-β in COPD epithelium. These data provide novel insight into epithelial generation of TSLP and suggest paths to be exploited in drug discovery aimed at inhibiting TSLP-induced pulmonary immunopathology.

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors induce apoptosis of lymphoma cells by promoting ROS generation and regulating Akt, Erk and p38 signals via suppression of mevalonate pathway

Statins, the inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, are widely used cholesterol-lowering drugs. Convincing evidence indicates that statins stimulate apoptotic cell death in several types of proliferating tumor cells in a cholesterol-lowering-independent manner. The objective here was to elucidate the molecular mechanism by which statins induce lymphoma cells death. Statins (atorvastatin, fluvastatin and simvastatin) treatment enhanced the DNA fragmentation and the activation of proapoptotic members such as caspase-3, PARP and Bax, but suppressed the activation of anti-apoptotic molecule Bcl-2 in lymphoma cells including A20 and EL4 cells, which was accompanied by inhibition of cell survival. Both increase in levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of p38 MAPK and decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of Akt and Erk pathways were observed in statin-treated lymphoma cells. Statin-induced cytotoxic effects, DNA fragmentation and changes of activation of caspase-3, Akt, Erk and p38 were blocked by antioxidant (N-acetylcysteine) and metabolic products of the HMG-CoA reductase reaction, such as mevalonate, farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP). These results suggests that HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors induce lymphoma cells apoptosis by increasing intracellular ROS generation and p38 activation and suppressing activation of Akt and Erk pathways, through inhibition of metabolic products of the HMG-CoA reductase reaction including mevalonate, FPP and GGPP.

Inulae Flos and Its Compounds Inhibit TNF-α- and IFN-γ-Induced Chemokine Production in HaCaT Human Keratinocytes

The present study is to investigate which kinds of solvent extracts of Inulae Flos inhibit the chemokine productions in HaCaT cell and whether the inhibitory capacity of Inulae Flos is related with constitutional compounds. The 70% methanol extract showed comparatively higher inhibition of thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) in HaCaT cells, therefore this extract was further partitioned with n-hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, butanol, and water. The ethyl acetate fraction inhibited TARC, macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22), and regulated on activation of normal T-cell-expressed and -secreted (RANTES/CCL5) production in HaCaT cells better than the other fractions. The compounds of Inulae Flos, such as 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and luteolin, inhibited TARC, MDC, and RANTES production in HaCaT cells. 1,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid was contained at the highest concentrations both in the 70% methanol extract and ethyl acetate fraction and inhibited the secretion of chemokines dose-dependently more than the other compounds. Luteolin also represented dose-dependent inhibition on chemokine productions although it was contained at lower levels in 70% methanol extract and solvent fractions. These results suggest that the inhibitory effects of Inulae Flos on chemokine production in HaCaT cell could be related with constituent compounds contained, especially 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and luteolin.

Evaluation of atorvastatin for the treatment of patients with asthma: a double-blind randomized clinical trial

Purpose

Statins are known as cholesterol-lowering agents, but have been suggested for the treatment of asthma because of their anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, the potential therapeutic effects of atorvastatin were investigated in asthmatic patients.

Methods

A total of 62 patients with persistent mild to moderate asthma who presented at asthma clinics of Arak University of Medical Sciences were recruited in a double-blind randomized clinical trial. The asthma clinical control score was assessed based on the standardized Asthma Control Test. Lung volume, i.e., percentage of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1%) and percentage of forced vital capacity (FVC%), and peripheral blood eosinophils were also measured. The intervention group was treated with atorvastatin 40 mg per day for 8 weeks, while the control group received a placebo. Asthma controller treatments were not changed. At the beginning and end of the study, serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels were measured to evaluate adherence of the patients to the treatment.

Results

The asthma control score did not significantly differ between the intervention and control groups (P=0.06). Difference in FEV1%, FVC%, and blood eosinophil count between the intervention and control groups were not statistically significant (P>0.05). The differences in post-treatment cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were significant (P<0.05).

Conclusions

Our study shows that atorvastatin is not effective in the treatment of persistent mild to moderate asthma.

Molecular and clinical rationale for therapeutic targeting of interleukin-5 and its receptor

Interleukin-5 is a Th2 homodimeric cytokine involved in the differentiation, maturation, migration, development, survival, trafficking and effector function of blood and local tissue eosinophils, in addition to basophils and mast cells. The IL-5 receptor (IL-5R) consists of an IL-5-specific α subunit that interacts in conformationally dynamic ways with the receptor's βc subunit, an aggregate of domains it shares with binding sites of IL-3 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL-5 and IL-5R drive allergic and inflammatory immune responses characterizing numerous diseases, such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, eosinophilic gastrointestinal diseases, hyper-eosinophilic syndrome, Churg-Strauss syndrome and eosinophilic nasal polyposis. Although corticosteroid therapy is the primary treatment for these diseases, a substantial number of patients exhibit incomplete responses and suffer side-effects. Two monoclonal antibodies have been designed to neutralize IL-5 (mepolizumab and reslizumab). Both antibodies have demonstrated the ability to reduce blood and tissue eosinophil counts. One additional monoclonal antibody, benralizumab (MEDI-563), has been developed to target IL-5R and attenuate eosinophilia through antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. All three monoclonal antibodies are being clinically evaluated. Antisense oligonucleotide technology targeting the common βc IL-5R subunit is also being used therapeutically to inhibit IL-5-mediated effects (TPI ASM8). Small interfering RNA technology has also been used therapeutically to inhibit the expression of IL-5 in animal models. This review summarizes the structural interactions between IL-5 and IL-5R and the functional consequences of such interactions, and describes the pre-clinical and clinical evidence supporting IL-5R as a therapeutic target.

Statins inhibit chemotactic interaction between CCL20 and CCR6 in vitro: possible relevance to psoriasis treatment

Psoriasis is a chronic IL-23/Th17 pathway-associated skin disease. An increased expression of lesional CCL20 can recruit CCR6+ Th17, and lesional cytokine milieu persistently activates keratinocytes to produce CCL20. Lipid-lowering drugs, statins, are known to possess immune-modulating functions. In this study, we explored an inhibitory effect of statins on CCL20/CCR6 interaction. We demonstrated that IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-17A significantly increased CCL20 production from HaCaT cells. However, these increments were markedly inhibited by fluvastatin and simvastatin, but not by pravastatin. In the chemotaxis migration assay, pretreatment with fluvastatin and simvastatin inhibited the migration of human CD4+ T cells towards CCL20. However, the level of CCR6 surface expression in memory CD4+ T cells was not affected. Our results suggest that not all, but specific types of statins may be of benefit in alleviating psoriasis partially via interrupting CCL20/CCR6 chemotactic interaction, the mechanism which may eventually lessen the infiltration of Th17 cells.

Evaluation of endogenous fatty acid amides and their synthetic analogues as potential anti-inflammatory leads

A series of endogenous fatty acid amides and their analogues (1-78) were prepared, and their inhibitory effects on pro-inflammatory mediators (NO, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells were evaluated. Their inhibitory activity on the pro-inflammatory chemokine MDC in IFN-γ-activated HaCaT cells was also examined. The results showed that the activity is strongly dependent on the nature of the fatty acid part of the molecules. As expected, the amides derived from enone fatty acids showed significant activity and were more active than those derived from other types of fatty acids. A variation of the amine headgroup also altered bioactivity profile remarkably, possibly by modulating cell permeability. Regarding the amine part of the molecules, N-acyl dopamines exhibited the most potent activity (IC(50) ∼2 μM). This is the first report of the inhibitory activity of endogenous fatty acid amides and their analogues on the production of nitric oxide, cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and the chemokine MDC. This study suggests that the enone fatty acid-derived amides (such as N-acyl ethanolamines and N-acyl amino acids) and N-acyl dopamines may be potential anti-inflammatory leads.

Sulforaphane suppresses TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 expression through heme oxygenase-1 and NF-κB in human keratinocytes

Sulforaphane (4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate, SFN) from broccoli has been used a chemopreventive photochemical as detoxification of xenobiotics and anti-inflammatory, however, there is no studies for Th2 chemokine expression through heme oxygenase-1 and NF-κB in keratinocytes. Atopic dermatitis is a chronically relapsing pruritic inflammatory skin disease. SFN is demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. This study aimed to define whether and how SFN regulates Th2-related chemokine production in human HaCaT keratinocytes. The level of chemokine expression was measured by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and signaling study was performed by Western blot analysis. Chemokine production was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Pretreatment with SFN suppressed interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α- induced thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC/CCL17) and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22) production in HaCaT keratinocytes. SFN inhibited IFN-γ and TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation as well as STAT1 activation. Interestingly, pretreatment with SFN result in significantly suppressed IFN-γ and TNF-α-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 production through the induction of HO-1. This suppression was completely abolished by HO-1 siRNA. Furthermore, Carbon monoxide, but not other end products of HO-1 activity, also suppressed IFN-γ and TNF-α-induced TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 production. These results demonstrate that SFN has an inhibitory role in IFN-γ and TNF-α-induced production of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22 in human HaCaT cells by inhibition of NF-κB activation and induction of HO-1.