Pedomorphosis revisited: thyroid hormone receptors are functional in Necturus maculosus

From tadpole to adult frog locomotion

The transition from larval to adult locomotion in the anuran, Xenopus laevis, involves a dramatic switch from axial to appendicular swimming including intermediate stages when the tail and hindlimbs co-exist and contribute to propulsion. Hatchling tadpole swimming is generated by an axial central pattern generator (CPG) which matures rapidly during early larval life. During metamorphosis, the developing limbs are controlled by a de novo appendicular CPG driven initially by the axial system before segregating to allow both systems to operate together or independently. Neuromodulation plays important roles throughout, but key modulators switch their effects from early inhibitory influences to facilitating locomotion. Temperature affects the construction and operation of locomotor networks and global changes in environmental temperature place aquatic poikilotherms, like amphibians, at risk. The locomotor control strategy of anurans differs from other amphibian groups such as salamanders, where evolution has acted upon the thyroid hormone pathway to sculpt different developmental outcomes.

Paedomorphic salamanders are larval in form and patterns of limb emergence inform life cycle evolution

Amphibians undergo a variety of post-embryonic transitions (PETr) that are partly governed by thyroid hormone (TH). Transformation into a terrestrial form follows an aquatic larval stage (biphasic) or precedes hatching (direct development). Some salamanders maintain larval characteristics and an aquatic lifestyle into adulthood (paedomorphosis), which obscures the conclusion of their larval period. Paedomorphic axolotls exhibit elevated TH during early development that is concomitant with transcriptional reprogramming and limb emergence. A recent perspective suggested this cryptic TH-based PETr is uncoupled from metamorphosis in paedomorphs and concludes the larval period. This led to their question: "Are paedomorphs actual larvae?". To clarify, paedomorphs are only considered larval in form, even though they possess some actual larval characteristics. However, we strongly agree that events during larval development inform amphibian life cycle evolution. We build upon their perspective by considering the evolution of limb emergence and metamorphosis. Limbless hatchling larval salamanders are generally associated with ponds, while limbed larvae are common to streams and preceded the evolution of direct development. Permian amphibians had limbed larvae, so their PETr was likely uncoupled from metamorphosis, equivalent to most extant biphasic and paedomorphic salamanders. Coupling of these events was likely derived in frogs and direct developing salamanders. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Repeated ecological and life cycle transitions make salamanders an ideal model for evolution and development

Observations on the ontogeny and diversity of salamanders provided some of the earliest evidence that shifts in developmental trajectories have made a substantial contribution to the evolution of animal forms. Since the dawn of evo-devo there have been major advances in understanding developmental mechanisms, phylogenetic relationships, evolutionary models, and an appreciation for the impact of ecology on patterns of development (eco-evo-devo). Molecular phylogenetic analyses have converged on strong support for the majority of branches in the Salamander Tree of Life, which includes 764 described species. Ancestral reconstructions reveal repeated transitions between life cycle modes and ecologies. The salamander fossil record is scant, but key Mesozoic species support the antiquity of life cycle transitions in some families. Colonization of diverse habitats has promoted phenotypic diversification and sometimes convergence when similar environments have been independently invaded. However, unrelated lineages may follow different developmental pathways to arrive at convergent phenotypes. This article summarizes ecological and endocrine-based causes of life cycle transitions in salamanders, as well as consequences to body size, genome size, and skeletal structure. Salamanders offer a rich source of comparisons for understanding how the evolution of developmental patterns has led to phenotypic diversification following shifts to new adaptive zones.

Rapid phenotypic evolution following shifts in life cycle complexity

Life cycle strategies have evolved extensively throughout the history of metazoans. The expression of disparate life stages within a single ontogeny can present conflicts to trait evolution, and therefore may have played a major role in shaping metazoan forms. However, few studies have examined the consequences of adding or subtracting life stages on patterns of trait evolution. By analysing trait evolution in a clade of closely related salamander lineages we show that shifts in the number of life cycle stages are associated with rapid phenotypic evolution. Specifically, salamanders with an aquatic-only (paedomorphic) life cycle have frequently added vertebrae to their trunk skeleton compared with closely related lineages with a complex aquatic-to-terrestrial (biphasic) life cycle. The rate of vertebral column evolution is also substantially lower in biphasic lineages, which may reflect the functional compromise of a complex cycle. This study demonstrates that the consequences of life cycle evolution can be detected at very fine scales of divergence. Rapid evolutionary responses can result from shifts in selective regimes following changes in life cycle complexity.

Phenotypic plasticity, canalization, and the origins of novelty: Evidence and mechanisms from amphibians

A growing number of biologists have begun asking whether environmentally induced phenotypic change--'phenotypic plasticity'--precedes and facilitates the origin and canalization of novel, complex phenotypes. However, such 'plasticity-first evolution' (PFE) remains controversial. Here, we summarize the PFE hypothesis and describe how it can be evaluated in natural systems. We then review the evidence for PFE from amphibians (a group in which phenotypic plasticity is especially widespread) and describe how phenotypic plasticity might have facilitated macroevolutionary change. Finally, we discuss what is known about the proximate mechanisms of PFE in amphibians. We close with suggestions for future research. As we describe, amphibians offer some of the best support for plasticity's role in the origin of evolutionary novelties.

Development of neuroendocrine components of the thyroid axis in the direct-developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui: formation of the median eminence and onset of pituitary TSH production

Direct-developing frogs lack, wholly or in part, a wide range of larval features found in metamorphosing species and form adult-specific features precociously, during embryogenesis. Most information on thyroid regulation of direct development relies on hormone manipulations; the ontogeny of many thyroid axis components has not been fully described. This analysis examines differentiation of the median eminence of the hypothalamus and production of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) by the pituitary of the direct-developing frog Eleutherodactylus coqui. The median eminence is established two-thirds of the way through embryogenesis. Cells immunoreactive to human TSHβ antibodies are first detected during embryogenesis and quantitative changes in TSHβ-IR cells resemble those in metamorphosing amphibians. Formation of the median eminence of the hypothalamus and TSHβ production by the pituitary precede or coincide with morphological changes during embryogenesis that occur during metamorphosis in biphasic anurans. Thus, while the onset of neuroendocrine regulation has changed during the evolution of direct development, it is likely that these thyroid axis components still mediate the formation of adult features.

Evolution of paedomorphosis in plethodontid salamanders: ecological correlates and re-evolution of metamorphosis

Life-history modes can profoundly impact the biology of a species, and a classic example is the dichotomy between metamorphic (biphasic) and paedomorphic (permanently aquatic) life-history strategies in salamanders. However, despite centuries of research on this system, several basic questions about the evolution of paedomorphosis in salamanders have not been addressed. Here, we use a nearly comprehensive, time-calibrated phylogeny of spelerpine plethodontids to reconstruct the evolution of paedomorphosis and to test if paedomorphosis is (1) reversible; (2) associated with living in caves; (3) associated with relatively dry climatic conditions on the surface; and (4) correlated with limited range size and geographic dispersal. We find that paedomorphosis arose multiple times in spelerpines. We also find evidence for re-evolution of metamorphosis after several million years of paedomorphosis in a lineage of Eurycea from the Edwards Plateau region of Texas. We also show for the first time using phylogenetic comparative methods that paedomorphosis is highly correlated with cave-dwelling, arid surface environments, and small geographic range sizes, providing insights into both the causes and consequences of this major life history transition.

Developmental diversity of amphibians

The current model amphibian, Xenopus laevis, develops rapidly in water to a tadpole which metamorphoses into a frog. Many amphibians deviate from the X. laevis developmental pattern. Among other adaptations, their embryos develop in foam nests on land or in pouches on their mother's back or on a leaf guarded by a parent. The diversity of developmental patterns includes multinucleated oogenesis, lack of RNA localization, huge non-pigmented eggs, and asynchronous, irregular early cleavages. Variations in patterns of gastrulation highlight the modularity of this critical developmental period. Many species have eliminated the larva or tadpole and directly develop to the adult. The wealth of developmental diversity among amphibians coupled with the wealth of mechanistic information from X. laevis permit comparisons that provide deeper insights into developmental processes.

Mechanisms and significance of nuclear receptor auto- and cross-regulation

The number of functional hormone receptors expressed by a cell in large part determines its responsiveness to the hormonal signal. The regulation of hormone receptor gene expression is therefore a central component of hormone action. Vertebrate steroid and thyroid hormones act by binding to nuclear receptors (NR) that function as ligand-activated transcription factors. Nuclear receptor genes are regulated by diverse and interacting intracellular signaling pathways. Nuclear receptor ligands can regulate the expression of the gene for the NR that mediates the hormone's action (autoregulation), thus influencing how a cell responds to the hormone. Autoregulation can be either positive or negative, the hormone increasing or decreasing, respectively, the expression of its own NR. Positive autoregulation (autoinduction) is often observed during postembryonic development, and during the ovarian cycle, where it enhances cellular sensitivity to the hormonal signal to drive the developmental process. By contrast, negative autoregulation (autorepression) may become important in the juvenile and adult for homeostatic negative feedback responses. In addition to autoregulation, a NR can influence the expression other types of NRs (cross-regulation), thus modifying how a cell responds to a different hormone. Cross-regulation by NRs is an important means to temporally coordinate cell responses to a subsequent (different) hormonal signal, or to allow for crosstalk between hormone signaling pathways.

Adaptive diversity: hormones and metabolism in freshwaters

Genes underlying the evolution of morphological traits have recently been identified in a number of model species. In the stickleback, the metabolic adaptations to a freshwater habitat have now been linked to a well-known hormonal system.

Comparative endocrinology in the 21st century

Hormones coordinate developmental, physiological, and behavioral processes within and between all living organisms. They orchestrate and shape organogenesis from early in development, regulate the acquisition, assimilation, and utilization of nutrients to support growth and metabolism, control gamete production and sexual behavior, mediate organismal responses to environmental change, and allow for communication of information between organisms. Genes that code for hormones; the enzymes that synthesize, metabolize, and transport hormones; and hormone receptors are important targets for natural selection, and variation in their expression and function is a major driving force for the evolution of morphology and life history. Hormones coordinate physiology and behavior of populations of organisms, and thus play key roles in determining the structure of populations, communities, and ecosystems. The field of endocrinology is concerned with the study of hormones and their actions. This field is rooted in the comparative study of hormones in diverse species, which has provided the foundation for the modern fields of evolutionary, environmental, and biomedical endocrinology. Comparative endocrinologists work at the cutting edge of the life sciences. They identify new hormones, hormone receptors and mechanisms of hormone action applicable to diverse species, including humans; study the impact of habitat destruction, pollution, and climatic change on populations of organisms; establish novel model systems for studying hormones and their functions; and develop new genetic strains and husbandry practices for efficient production of animal protein. While the model system approach has dominated biomedical research in recent years, and has provided extraordinary insight into many basic cellular and molecular processes, this approach is limited to investigating a small minority of organisms. Animals exhibit tremendous diversity in form and function, life-history strategies, and responses to the environment. A major challenge for life scientists in the 21st century is to understand how a changing environment impacts all life on earth. A full understanding of the capabilities of organisms to respond to environmental variation, and the resilience of organisms challenged by environmental changes and extremes, is necessary for understanding the impact of pollution and climatic change on the viability of populations. Comparative endocrinologists have a key role to play in these efforts.

Preliminary investigation of morphological differences between ten breeds of horses suggests selection for paedomorphosis

Paedomorphosis is the retention of juvenile morphology at maturity and is important in generating evolutionary change in domestic species and species in the wild. When comparing dogs with the wolf, this preliminary study saw paedomorphosis in their physical and behavioral traits (Goodwin, Bradshaw, & Wickens, 1997). This preliminary study compared morphological characteristics of 10 breeds from northern regions (Shetland ponies) and southern regions (Arabians) with the Exmoor pony. Twenty-three respondents from the United Kingdom and Australia rated the breeds for 7 physical traits. As evidenced by low standard deviations, the respondents demonstrated a high degree of agreement. The study ranked breeds from the most similar (Highland pony) to the least similar (Arabian) to the Exmoor pony. The least similar breeds had physical traits suggestive of paedomorphosis: small heads, long legs, and a low head-to-body ratio. This preliminary study suggests that morphological, behavioral, and physiological differences between the breeds-plus morphometric comparisons of extant breeds and faunal remains of predomestication horses-warrant further study.

Amphibians as Animal Models for Laboratory Research in Physiology

The concept of animal models is well honored, and amphibians have played a prominent part in the success of using key species to discover new information about all animals. As animal models, amphibians offer several advantages that include a well-understood basic physiology, a taxonomic diversity well suited to comparative studies, tolerance to temperature and oxygen variation, and a greater similarity to humans than many other currently popular animal models. Amphibians now account for approximately 1/4 to 1/3 of lower vertebrate and invertebrate research, and this proportion is especially true in physiological research, as evident from the high profile of amphibians as animal models in Nobel Prize research. Currently, amphibians play prominent roles in research in the physiology of musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, renal, respiratory, reproductive, and sensory systems. Amphibians are also used extensively in physiological studies aimed at generating new insights in evolutionary biology, especially in the investigation of the evolution of air breathing and terrestriality. Environmental physiology also utilizes amphibians, ranging from studies of cryoprotectants for tissue preservation to physiological reactions to hypergravity and space exploration. Amphibians are also playing a key role in studies of environmental endocrine disruptors that are having disproportionately large effects on amphibian populations and where specific species can serve as sentinel species for environmental pollution. Finally, amphibian genera such as Xenopus, a genus relatively well understood metabolically and physiologically, will continue to contribute increasingly in this new era of systems biology and "X-omics."