Coping with Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain in Portugal and in the United States: A Cross-Cultural Study

The relationship between emotion regulation and pain catastrophizing in patients with chronic pain

OBJECTIVES

Pain catastrophizing (PC) is a cognitive/emotional response to and in anticipation of pain that can be maladaptive, further exacerbating pain and difficulty in emotion regulation (ER). There is a lack of research on the interplay between PC and ER and its impact on pain. Our aim was to investigate whether ER exacerbated the pain experience through PC.

METHODS

Adults with chronic non-cancer pain of >3 months' duration (n = 150) who were taking opioid medication were recruited from a large medical center in Pennsylvania. A battery of questionnaires was conducted to gather data on demographics, substance use, mental health histories, and health and pain outcomes. Measures used included the 18-Item Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, the Pain Catastrophizing Scale, the Brief Pain Inventory-Short Form, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. A structural equation model with latent variables was conducted to examine our aim.

RESULTS

Both pain interference and severity were significantly positively associated with several psychosocial variables, such as anxiety, depression, ER constructs, PC, and distress intolerance. The associations between subscales and pain interference were larger than the associations between subscales and pain severity. PC fully mediated the paths from ER to pain experiences.

DISCUSSION

Our results highlight the importance of several cognitive and emotional constructs: nonacceptance of negative emotions, lack of emotional awareness, magnification of the pain experience, and a sense of helplessness. Furthermore, by showing the indirect effects of PC in affecting ER and pain, we posit that ER, mediated by PC, might serve a critical role in influencing the pain experience in patients with chronic pain.

Pain-Related Beliefs, Coping, and Function: An Observational Study on the Moderating Influence of Country of Origin

Chronic pain is a multidimensional experience and pain treatments targeting psychosocial factors reduce pain and improve function. These treatments often overlook the sociocultural factors that influence pain and the psychological factors associated with function in people with chronic pain. Although preliminary findings suggest that cultural background may influence pain and function via their effects on beliefs and coping, no previous study has directly tested if the country of origin moderates the associations between these psychological factors and pain and function. This study sought to address this knowledge gap. Five hundred sixty-one adults with chronic pain, born and living in the USA (n = 273) or Portugal (n = 288), completed measures of pain, function, pain-related beliefs, and coping. Between-country similarities were found in the endorsement of beliefs related to disability, pain control, and emotion, and in asking for assistance, task persistence, and coping self-statement responses. Portuguese participants reported greater endorsement of harm, medication, solicitude, and medical cure beliefs, more frequent use of relaxation and support seeking, and less frequent use of guarding, resting, and exercising/stretching. In both countries, disability and harm beliefs and guarding responses were associated with worse outcomes; pain control and task persistence were associated with better outcomes. Six country-related small effect-size moderation effects emerged, such that task persistence and guarding are stronger predictors of pain and function in adults from the USA, but pain control, disability, emotion, and medication beliefs are more important in adults from Portugal. Some modifications may be needed when adapting multidisciplinary treatments from one country to another. PERSPECTIVE: This article examines the similarities and differences in beliefs and coping endorsed by adults with chronic pain from 2 countries, and the potential moderation effects of country on the associations between these variables and pain and function. The findings suggest that some modifications may be needed when culturally customizing psychological pain treatments.

Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between family caregivers' pain-related beliefs and patients' coping strategies

Background: In order to tailor more effective interventions and minimize the burden of chronic pain, it is critical to identify the interaction and contribution of social and psychological factors in pain. One of the important psychological factors in pain management is related to the choice of pain coping strategies in chronic pain patients. Social resources, including family caregivers' pain attitudes-beliefs, can influence pain coping strategies in chronic pain patients. Moreover, one key factor that may intervene in the relationship between caregivers' pain attitudes-beliefs and the patients' coping strategies is the emotion regulation strategies. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of emotion regulation strategies of chronic pain patients and their family caregivers on the association between caregivers' pain attitudes-beliefs and pain coping strategies of chronic pain patients. Methods: We recruited 200 chronic musculoskeletal pain patients and their family caregivers. Chronic pain patients responded to measures of pain coping and emotion regulation strategies while family caregivers completed questionnaires related to their attitude toward pain and emotion regulation of themselves. Results: There is an association between caregivers' pain attitudes-beliefs and pain coping strategies in patients with chronic musculoskeletal. Moreover, the structural equation modeling revealed that the emotion regulation of both patients and family caregivers mediate the relationship between the caregivers' pain attitudes-beliefs and pain coping strategies of patients with chronic musculoskeletal. Conclusions: The social context of pain, including the effect of family caregivers' responses to the patient's pain, is a critical pain source that is suggested to affect coping strategies in patients. These findings suggest an association between pain attitudes-beliefs in family caregivers and pain coping strategies in patients. Moreover, these results showed that the emotion regulation of both patients and their family caregivers mediates this association.

Clinical encounters may not be responding to patients' search for meaning and control over non-specific chronic low back pain - an interpretative phenomenological analysis

PURPOSE

Considering the need to study the experiences of individuals with musculoskeletal problems in contexts that have not yet been investigated as well as the relevance of fostering a research agenda towards person-centred care, this study aimed to explore the experiences of non-specific chronic low back pain from the perspective of Portuguese individuals living with it.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An interpretative phenomenological analysis was employed to explore the experiences of eight participants, who were recruited purposefully from two primary care centres and one clinic. Semi-structured one-to-one interviews were carried out, audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim.

RESULTS

Three themes were generated as interrelated parts of an extended account that explored the participants' meaning making of their experience: "Non-specific chronic low back pain as a disruptive experience"; "Searching for the meaning of non-specific chronic low back pain"; and, "Clinical encounters that perpetuate the lack of understanding about non-specific chronic low back pain."

CONCLUSIONS

This study offers insight into the Portuguese individuals' experiences of non-specific chronic low back pain. Particularly, it suggests that clinical encounters may not be aligned with patients' needs and expectations. These findings may help clinicians in transferring this knowledge to therapeutic approaches to individuals with similar experiences/contexts.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONPatients with NSCLBP need to understand their pain and to retain a sense of control over their lives.Encounters with health professionals may perpetuate the lack of understanding about pain and strategies to control it, as patients consider themselves unable to have an active role in the decision-making and are disempowered to deal with their pain.Health professionals should involve patients and promote the co-construction of an explanation that integrates both health professionals' knowledge and patients' narratives.There is a need to align both the patients' and health professionals' perspectives regarding health care in order to implement patient-centred and individually tailored treatment.

Association between Pain Intensity, Pain Belief, and Coping Strategies in Older Adults

This study aimed to determine the relation between pain, pain belief, and coping strategies and the interaction effect of pain belief and coping stretegies on pain intensity in older adults living in Denizli. 601 older adults (68.32 ± 8.28 years) with good cognitive function participated in current study. Pain intensity, pain beliefs and coping strategies were assessed with Geriartric Pain Measure (GPM), Pain Beliefs Scale (PBS) and Pain Coping Inventory (PCI), respectively. Mean pain intensity of older adults was 53.6 ± 21 (0-99.96). There was a statistically significant difference in passive coping strategies between older adults with mild, moderate, and severe pain (p < .001). As organic pain belief and active coping strategies increase, the pain intensity decreases in older adults living in Denizli.

Does Religiosity/Spirituality Play a Role in Function, Pain-Related Beliefs, and Coping in Patients with Chronic Pain? A Systematic Review

This systematic review examined the extent to which measures of religiosity/spirituality (R/S): (1) are associated with pain, function, pain-related beliefs (beliefs), coping responses, and catastrophizing in people with chronic pain; and (2) moderate the association between beliefs, coping and catastrophizing, and pain and function. Experimental and observational studies examining at least one of these research questions in adults with chronic pain were eligible. Two reviewers independently performed eligibility screening, data extraction, and quality assessment. Twenty studies were included. Most studies focused on the association between R/S and pain or function. When significant associations emerged, those between R/S and psychological function were weak to strong and positive; those between religious/spiritual well-being and pain and physical dysfunction were negative, but weak. Few studies examined the associations between R/S and beliefs/coping/catastrophizing; none examined the moderation role of R/S. The findings suggest that R/S is associated with pain and psychological function in people with chronic pain, and that viewing oneself as being "spiritual," regardless of religion, may contribute to positive psychological adjustment. More research is needed to determine the reliability of this finding. PROSPERO registry CRD42018088803.

Predictors of return to work among women with long-term neck/shoulder and/or back pain: A 1-year prospective study

Background

Sick leave due to musculoskeletal pain, particularly in the neck/shoulders and back, is one of the major public health problems in Western countries such as Sweden. The aim of this study was to identify predictors of return to work (RTW) among women on sick leave due to long-term neck/shoulder and/or back pain.

Methods

This was a prospective cohort study with a 1-year follow-up. The study participants were recruited from a local Swedish Social Insurance Agency register and had all been on sick leave for ≥ 1 month due to long-term (≥ 3 months) neck/shoulder and/or back pain. Data on predictors and outcome were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. A total of 208 women aged 23–64 years were included at baseline, and 141 responded at the 1-year follow-up. Cluster analyses were performed to identify one predictor from each cluster for use in the regression model.

Results

At the 1-year follow-up, 94 of the 141 women had RTW and 47 had not. Women who engaged in more coping through increasing behavioral activities (OR: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.03–1.25) and those who more strongly believed they would return to the same work within 6 months (OR: 1.22, 95% CI: 1.10–1.37) had an increased probability of RTW. Receiving more social support outside work (OR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.28–0.92) decreased the odds of RTW at the 1-year follow-up.

Conclusions

Behavioral activities, beliefs about returning to the same work, and social support outside work were predictors of RTW at the 1-year follow-up. Healthcare professionals should consider these predictors in their efforts to prevent prolonged sick leave and to promote RTW in this population.

Association of preoperative pain catastrophizing with postoperative pain after lower limb trauma surgery

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate an association between preoperative Nepali pain catastrophizing scale (N-PCS) scores and postoperative pain intensity and total opioid consumption.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study we enrolled 135 patients with an American Society of Anaesthesiologists physical status I or II, aged between 18 and 65 years, and scheduled for surgery for lower-extremity fracture under spinal anaesthesia. Maximum postoperative pain reported during the 24 h was classified into two groups, no-mild pain group (Numeric rating scale [NRS] scores 1-3) and a moderate-severe pain group (NRS 4-10). The Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to compare the association between the baseline N-PCS scores and outcome variables, i.e., the maximum NRS pain score and the total tramadol consumption within the first 24 h after surgery. Logistic regression models were used to identify the predictors for the intensity of postoperative pain.

RESULTS

As four patients violated the protocol, the data of 131 patients were analyzed. Mean N-PCS scores reported by the moderate-severe pain group was 27.39 ± 9.50 compared to 18.64 ± 10 mean N-PCS scores by the no-mild pain group (p < 0.001). Preoperative PCS scores correlated positively with postoperative pain intensity (r = 0.43, [95% CI 0.28-0.56], p < 0.001) and total tramadol consumption (r = 0.36, [95% CI 0.20-0.50], p < 0.001). Preoperative pain catastrophizing was associated with postoperative moderate-severe pain (odds ratio, 1.08 [95% confidence interval, 1.02-1.15], p = 0.006) after adjusting for gender, ethnicity and preoperative anxiety.

CONCLUSION

Patients who reported higher pain catastrophizing preoperatively were at increased risk of experiencing moderate-severe postoperative pain.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

www.clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT03758560.

The Meaning Making Model Applied to Community-Dwelling Adults with Chronic Pain

PURPOSE

Chronic pain is a multidimensional experience that is influenced by biological, psychological, social, and spiritual factors. The Meaning Making Model is a recent cognitive behavioral model that has been developed to understand how psychosocial factors influence adjustment to stressful events, such as having a chronic illness. This qualitative study aims to understand the potential utility of this model for understanding the role of meaning making in adjustment to chronic pain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen community-dwelling adults with chronic low back pain or chronic pain due to osteoarthritis participated in four focus groups. Participants were asked open-ended questions about their pain experience, pain-related beliefs, meaning of pain, and the perceived association between pain and their meaning in life and sense of purpose. Data were submitted to thematic analysis and the identified themes were considered in light of the Meaning Making Model.

RESULTS

Three overarching themes emerged, each of which included two themes. The first overarching theme - "appraised meaning of pain" - included the themes "causal attributions" and "primary appraisals." The second - "meaning making processes" - included the themes "assimilation" and "accommodation." The third - "meanings made" - included the themes "pain as an opportunity" and "acceptance."

CONCLUSION

The key themes that emerged as individuals with chronic pain discussed pain and its impact are consistent with those that would be hypothesized as important from the Meaning Making Model, providing preliminary support for the utility of this model in the context of chronic pain. People with chronic pain appear to appraise pain in terms of its cause, controllability, threat, loss, or challenge. When a discrepancy between the appraised meaning of pain and one's global meaning emerged, participants engaged in meaning making processes (accommodation and assimilation), resulting in meanings made, such as a reappraised meaning of pain, perceptions of growth, and acceptance.

Group Differences Between Countries and Between Languages in Pain-Related Beliefs, Coping, and Catastrophizing in Chronic Pain: A Systematic Review

Objective

To evaluate the extent to which pain-related beliefs, appraisals, coping, and catastrophizing differ between countries, language groups, and country economy.

Design

Systematic review.

Methods

Two independent reviewers searched 15 databases without restriction for date or language of publication. Studies comparing pain beliefs/appraisals, coping, or catastrophizing across two or more countries or language groups in adults with chronic pain (pain for longer than three months) were included. Two independent reviewers extracted data and performed the quality appraisal. Study quality was rated as low, moderate, or high using a 10-item modified STROBE checklist. Effect sizes were reported as small (0.20–0.49), medium (0.50–0.79), or large (≥0.80).

Results

We retrieved 1,365 articles, read 42 potential full texts, and included 10 (four moderate-quality, six low-quality) studies. A total of 6,797 adults with chronic pain (33% with chronic low back pain) were included from 16 countries. Meta-analysis was not performed because of heterogeneity in the studies. A total of 103 effect sizes were computed for individual studies, some of which indicated between-country differences in pain beliefs, coping, and catastrophizing. Of these, the majority of effect sizes for pain beliefs/appraisal (60%; eight large, eight medium, and eight small), for coping (60%; seven large, 11 medium, and 16 small), and for catastrophizing (50%; two medium, one small) evidenced statistically significant between-country differences, although study quality was low to moderate.

Conclusions

In 50% or more of the studies, mean scores in the measures of pain beliefs and appraisals, coping responses, and catastrophizing were significantly different between people from different countries.

The Role of Pain-Related Cognitions in the Relationship Between Pain Severity, Depression, and Pain Interference in a Sample of Primary Care Patients with Both Chronic Pain and Depression

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to better understand the associations between pain-related cognitions and pain severity, and psychological and physical function, and 2) to determine the extent to which these cognitions function as mediators in the association between pain severity and depression in a sample of primary care adult patients with chronic pain and depression.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional design.

METHODS

Three hundred twenty-eight patients with both depression and chronic pain from primary care centers responded to measures of pain severity, pain interference, depression severity, and pain-related cognitions (including measures of catastrophizing and other pain-related beliefs). We performed three hierarchical regression analyses and two multiple regression analyses.

RESULTS

The helplessness domain of pain catastrophizing was positively associated with pain severity, depression severity, and pain interference and mediated the relationship between depression and pain severity and vice versa. Beliefs about disability showed a positive association with pain severity, pain interference, and depression severity, and also mediated the relationship between pain severity and depression. Believing in a medical cure was positively associated with pain interference and negatively associated with depression; emotion beliefs were positively associated with pain severity.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide important new information about the associations between several pain-related cognitions and pain severity, depression, and pain interference and the potential mediating roles that these cognitions play in the associations between pain severity and depression in patients with both chronic pain and depression in the primary care setting.

Structural validity of the Chronic Pain Coping Inventory-Brazilian version

Background

The Chronic Pain Coping Inventory (CPCI) has been widely used to measure coping with pain, however, the psychometric properties of the Brazilian CPCI are unknown.

Aim

To verify the validity and reliability of the CPCI-Brazilian version.

Materials and methods

A sample of 705 outpatients with chronic pain participated in the study. Cronbach’s alpha, corrected item-total correlations, and confirmatory factor analysis were performed, using the method of Diagonally Weighted Least Squares.

Results

Construct validity was supported with a factor loading range of 0.36–0.90 (9 factors) corroborating original loads. The final model had adequate fit with items 42 and 54 excluded, D.F = 2174, TLI = 0.96; CFI = 0.96 and RMSEA = 0.051(p = 0.067). Eight of the nine CPCI scales showed satisfactory reliability (Cronbach’s alpha ranged from 0.70 to 0.92). The Relaxation scale obtained a low alpha value (0.53).

Conclusion

The CPCI-Brazilian version, after exclusion of items 42 and 54, is valid to measure chronic pain coping in Brazilian adults.

The Role of Spirituality in Pain, Function, and Coping in Individuals with Chronic Pain

OBJECTIVE

Chronic pain is a multidimensional experience associated with psychosocial (e.g., pain-related beliefs and pain coping responses) and spiritual factors. Spirituality is a universal aspect of the human experience that has been hypothesized to impact pain experience via its effects on pain, physical/psychological function, resilience and pain-related beliefs, and pain coping responses. However, research evaluating the associations between measures of spirituality and measures of pain and function in individuals with chronic pain is limited. This study seeks to address this limitation.

METHODS

Participants were 62 Portuguese adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain. Participants completed measures of spirituality, pain intensity, physical and psychological function, and pain coping responses.

RESULTS

Spirituality as hope and a positive perspective toward life was positively and moderately associated with better psychological function and coping responses of ignoring pain sensations and coping self-statements. Spirituality as a search for meaning and sense of purpose was positively and moderately associated with the coping response of task persistence.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest the possibility that spirituality may be a useful resource for facilitating psychological adjustment, potentially promoting the use of some adaptive pain coping responses.

Pain Diagnosis, Pain Coping, and Function in Individuals with Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain

Purpose

Research supports a role for coping responses in adjustment to chronic pain. However, it is likely that some coping responses play a larger role in adjustment to pain for some individuals than others. The identification of the factors that moderate the association between coping responses and pain-related outcomes has important clinical implications. This study sought to determine if musculoskeletal pain diagnosis moderates the associations between eight pain-coping responses and both pain and function.

Patients and Methods

A non-probabilistic sample of 323 persons with different chronic musculoskeletal pain conditions completed measures of pain intensity, physical function, psychological function, and pain-coping responses.

Results

With only one exception, the frequency of use of pain-coping responses was not associated with pain diagnosis. Statistically significant moderation effects of pain diagnosis on the association between coping and pain outcomes were found for two coping responses: 1) support seeking when predicting pain intensity, and 2) resting when predicting both physical and psychological function.

Conclusion

The findings indicate that coping responses tend to play a similar role in patients' pain and function across different musculoskeletal pain conditions, with some important exceptions. If the findings are found to replicate in other samples, they would have important implications for determining when psychosocial pain treatments might (and when they might not) need to be adapted for specific diagnostic groups.

Prevalence of musculoskeletal complaints in urban communities in multi-ethnic Suriname: a cross-sectional study with the COPCORD methodology (stage 1, phase 1 and 2)

INTRODUCTION/OBJECTIVES

Musculoskeletal complaints (MSCs) are a major burden worldwide. In Suriname, a South American developing country, the epidemiology of MSCs and its related disorders is still unknown. Therefore, a cross-sectional survey was carried out to determine prevalence and risk factors of MSCs in urban areas of Suriname.

METHODS

This is the first Community Oriented Program for the Control of Rheumatic Diseases survey in a Caribbean Community. Trained interviewers collecting self-reported data conducted this house-to-house community-based survey. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 23 and Stata version 14.1.

RESULTS

The prevalence of MSCs was 62.1% with a higher prevalence rate among women compared with men (resp. 64.3% vs. 58.6%) (Odds ratio = 1.185; p ≤ 0.05). The most decisive self-reported variables associated with MSCs were older age (defined as ≥ 45 years) and moderate to heavy physical workload. The prevalence of MSCs was also associated with women, low educational level, smoking, alcohol use, high-intensity physical activity level, and body mass index (≥ 25 kg/m²). The highest prevalence of MSCs was found among African descendants (Maroons (68.8%) and Creoles (68.0%)), followed by the Indigenous (65.0%) and Asian descendants (Hindustani (64.3%) and Javanese (49.5%)). Most persons with MSCs (75.7%) reported multisite complaints with lower back, knee, and shoulder being the most frequently reported sites. In our study population, MSCs were not considered disabling (mean Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index score of 0.23).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of MSCs in this urban multi-ethnic Surinamese community is high; therefore, future research is needed to further explore the burden of MSCs in Suriname.Key Points• Musculoskeletal complaints are highly prevalent in different ethnic groups in an urban Surinamese community; almost two-thirds of the population reported MSCs with the highest prevalence rate among women and African descendants.• The most decisive self-reported variables associated with MSCs were older age (defined as ≥ 45 years) and moderate to heavy physical workload. Gender, educational level, smoking, alcohol use, high-intensity physical activity, and body mass index were also significantly associated with musculoskeletal complaints.

Rehabilitation via HOMe Based gaming exercise for the Upper-limb post Stroke (RHOMBUS): protocol of an intervention feasibility trial

INTRODUCTION

Effective interventions to promote upper-limb recovery poststroke are characterised by intensive and repetitive movements. However, the repetitive nature of practice may adversely impact on adherence. Therefore, the development of rehabilitation devices that can be used safely and easily at home, and are motivating, enjoyable and affordable is essential to the health and well-being of stroke survivors.The Neurofenix platform is a non-immersive virtual reality device for poststroke upper-limb rehabilitation. The platform uses a hand controller (a NeuroBall) or arm bands (NeuroBands) that facilitate upper-limb exercise via games displayed on a tablet. The Rehabilitation via HOMe Based gaming exercise for the Upper-limb post Stroke trial aims to determine the safety, feasibility and acceptability of the Neurofenix platform for home-based rehabilitation of the upper-limb poststroke.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Thirty people poststroke will be provided with a Neurofenix platform, consisting of a NeuroBall or NeuroBands (dependent on impairment level), seven specially designed games, a tablet and handbook to independently exercise their upper limb for 7 weeks. Training commences with a home visit from a research therapist to teach the participant how to safely use the device. Outcomes assessed at baseline and 8 weeks and 12 weeks are gross level of disability, pain, objectively measured arm function and impairment, self-reported arm function, passive range of movement, spasticity, fatigue, participation, quality of life (QOL) and health service use. A parallel process evaluation will assess feasibility, acceptability and safety of the intervention through assessment of fidelity to the intervention measured objectively through the Neurofenix platform, a postintervention questionnaire and semistructured interviews exploring participants' experiences of the intervention. The feasibility of conducting an economic evaluation will be determined by collecting data on QOL and resource use.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethics approval granted from Brunel University London (10249-MHR-Mar/2018-12322-2). Trial results will be submitted for publication in journals, presented at national and international conferences and distributed to people with stroke.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ISRCTN60291412; Pre-results.

Socioeconomic factors, psychological factors, and function in adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain from rural Nepal

Background

Both socioeconomic and psychological factors have been shown to predict patient function in samples of individuals with chronic pain in Western countries. However, little is known about their role as predictors of function in individuals with chronic pain from developing countries.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between measures of socioeconomic factors (income, education) and psychological factors (catastrophizing and resilience) and measures of function in a sample of individuals with chronic pain from rural Nepal. In addition, we sought to evaluate the moderating effects of socioeconomic factors on the associations between the psychological variables and function.

Methods

We interviewed 143 adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain from rural areas of Nepal to assess income, education level, pain intensity, catastrophizing, resilience, physical function, and depression. We performed two regression analyses to evaluate the direct and unique effects of the socioeconomic and psychological variables and pain intensity as predictors of patient function, as well as the moderating influence of income, education level, and pain intensity on the associations between the psychological variables and function.

Results

Education and income both predicted physical function, but only income predicted depression. In addition, pain catastrophizing, but not resilience, evidenced a direct and significant independent association with depression. Neither catastrophizing nor resilience made independent and significant direct contributions to the prediction of physical function. The association between resilience and physical function was moderated by pain intensity and income, and income (but not education or pain intensity) moderated the associations between both 1) resilience and depression and 2) catastrophizing and depression.

Conclusion

The results suggest the possibility that cultural differences may influence the role that psychosocial factors play in chronic pain adjustment. These findings have important implications regarding how psychosocial pain interventions should be adapted by individuals in developing countries.

Validation of the surgical fear questionnaire in adult patients waiting for elective surgery

OBJECTIVES

Because existing instruments for assessing surgical fear seem either too general or too limited, the Surgical Fear Questionnaire (SFQ) was developed. The aim of this study is to assess the validity and reliability of the SFQ.

METHODS

Based on existing literature and expert consultation the ten-item SFQ was composed. Data on the SFQ were obtained from 5 prospective studies (N = 3233) in inpatient or day surgery patients. These data were used for exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability analysis and validity analysis.

RESULTS

EFA in Study 1 and 2 revealed a two-factor structure with one factor associated with fear of the short-term consequences of surgery (SFQ-s, item 1-4) and the other factor with fear of the long-term consequences of surgery (SFQ-l, item 5-10). However, in both studies two items of the SFQ-l had low factor loadings. Therefore in Study 3 and 4 the 2-factor structure was tested and confirmed by CFA in an eight-item version of the SFQ. Across all studies significant correlations of the SFQ with pain catastrophizing, state anxiety, and preoperative pain intensity indicated good convergent validity. Internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) was between 0.765-0.920 (SFQ-total), 0.766-0.877 (SFQ-s), and 0.628-0.899 (SFQ-l). The SFQ proved to be sensitive to detect differences based on age, sex, education level, employment status and preoperative pain intensity.

DISCUSSION

The SFQ is a valid and reliable eight-item index of surgical fear consisting of two subscales: fear of the short-term consequences of surgery and fear of the long-term consequences.

Construct and criterion-based validity of brief pain coping scales in persons with chronic knee osteoarthritis pain

OBJECTIVES

A recent trend in clinical practice is to adopt short screening and diagnostic self-report instruments for patients with chronic pain. Brief two-item pain coping and beliefs measures have recently been developed and have potential to improve decision making in clinical practice. Our study examined the construct and criterion-based validity of the two-item per scale version of the coping strategies questionnaire (CSQ).

DESIGN

We used data obtained on a community-based sample of 873 persons with chronic knee osteoarthritis pain from the Osteoarthritis Initiative, a large longitudinal cohort study. Persons were administered the two-item per scale version of the CSQ. The International Classification of Functioning framework was used to select a variety of criterion-based measures for comparison with the CSQ. Spearman correlations and hierarchical regression models were used to characterize construct validity and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, sensitivity and specificity were used to describe criterion-based validity.

RESULTS

Construct validity of the CSQ scales was generally supported, with the Catastrophizing and Praying or Hoping scales demonstrating the strongest construct validity across criterion measures. Criterion-based validity for the CSQ scales varied depending on the criterion measure. The Catastrophizing and Praying or Hoping scales also had the strongest criterion-based validity, with ROC curve areas as high as 0.71 (95% confidence interval = 0.67, 0.75), P < 0.001, for identifying persons with substantial physical function deficits.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that several of the two-item CSQ scales demonstrate a modest level of construct validity along with fair criterion-based validity. The Catastrophizing and Praying or Hoping scales appear to hold the most promise for clinical applications and future longitudinal research.