1
|
Liu P, Li J, Kosorok MR. Change plane model averaging for subgroup identification. Stat Methods Med Res 2023; 32:773-788. [PMID: 36775991 DOI: 10.1177/09622802231154327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
Central to personalized medicine and tailored therapies is discovering the subpopulations that account for treatment effect heterogeneity and are likely to benefit more from given interventions. In this article, we introduce a change plane model averaging method to identify subgroups characterized by linear combinations of predictive variables and multiple cut-offs. We first fit a sequence of statistical models, each incorporating the thresholding effect of one particular covariate. The estimation of submodels is accomplished through an iterative integration of a change point detection method and numerical optimization algorithms. A frequentist model averaging approach is then employed to linearly combine the submodels with optimal weights. Our approach can deal with high-dimensional settings involving enormous potential grouping variables by adopting the sparsity-inducing penalties. Simulation studies are conducted to investigate the prediction and subgrouping performance of the proposed method, with a comparison to various competing subgroup detection methods. Our method is applied to a dataset from a warfarin pharmacogenetics study, producing some new findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pan Liu
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, 37580National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jialiang Li
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, 37580National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Duke University NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Michael R Kosorok
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lubich B, Jeske D, Yao W. Statistical Inference for Method of Moments Estimators of a Semi-Supervised Two-Component Mixture Model. AM STAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00031305.2022.2096695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley Lubich
- University of California, Statistics, Riverside, 92521 United States
| | - Daniel Jeske
- University of California, Statistics, Riverside, 92521 United States
| | - Weixin Yao
- University of California, Statistics, Riverside, 92521 United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Subgroup Identification and Regression Analysis of Clustered and Heterogeneous Interval-Censored Data. MATHEMATICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/math10060862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Clustered and heterogeneous interval-censored data occur in many fields such as medical studies. For example, in a migraine study with the Netherlands Twin Registry, the information including time to diagnosis of migraine and gender was collected for 3975 monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Since each study subject is observed only at discrete and periodic follow-up time points, the failure times of interest (i.e., the time when the individual first had a migraine) are known only to belong to certain intervals and hence are interval-censored. Furthermore, these twins come from different genetic backgrounds and may be associated with differential risks for developing migraines. For simultaneous subgroup identification and regression analysis of such data, we propose a latent Cox model where the number of subgroups is not assumed a priori but rather data-driven estimated. The nonparametric maximum likelihood method and an EM algorithm with monotone ascent property are also developed for estimating the model parameters. Simulation studies are conducted to assess the finite sample performance of the proposed estimation procedure. We further illustrate the proposed methodologies by an empirical analysis of migraine data.
Collapse
|
4
|
Yuan A, Wang L, Tan MT. Set-regression with applications to subgroup analysis. Stat Med 2021; 41:180-193. [PMID: 34672000 DOI: 10.1002/sim.9229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Regression is a commonly used statistical model. It is the conditional mean of the response given covariates μ ( x ) = E ( Y | X = x ) . However, in some practical problems, the interest is the conditional mean of the response given the covariates belonging to some set A. Notably, in precision medicine and subgroup analysis in clinical trials, the aim is to identify subjects who benefit the most from the treatment, or identify an optimal set in the covariate space which manifests treatment favoritism if a subject's covariates fall in this set and the subject is classified to the favorable treatment subgroup. Existing methods for subgroup analysis achieve this indirectly by using classical regression. This motivates us to develop a new type of regression: set-regression, defined as μ ( A ) = E ( Y | X ∈ A ) which directly addresses the subgroup analysis problem. This extends not only the classical regression model but also improves recursive partitioning and support vector machine approaches, and is particularly suitable for objectives involving optimization of the regression over sets, such as subgroup analysis. We show that the new versatile set-regression identifies the subgroup with increased accuracy. It is easy to use. Simulation studies also show superior performance of the proposed method in finite samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ao Yuan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Lida Wang
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Ming T Tan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Saha S, Liu Z, Saarela O. Instrumental variable estimation of early treatment effect in randomized screening trials. LIFETIME DATA ANALYSIS 2021; 27:537-560. [PMID: 34254205 DOI: 10.1007/s10985-021-09527-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The primary analysis of randomized screening trials for cancer typically adheres to the intention-to-screen principle, measuring cancer-specific mortality reductions between screening and control arms. These mortality reductions result from a combination of the screening regimen, screening technology and the effect of the early, screening-induced, treatment. This motivates addressing these different aspects separately. Here we are interested in the causal effect of early versus delayed treatments on cancer mortality among the screening-detectable subgroup, which under certain assumptions is estimable from conventional randomized screening trial using instrumental variable type methods. To define the causal effect of interest, we formulate a simplified structural multi-state model for screening trials, based on a hypothetical intervention trial where screening detected individuals would be randomized into early versus delayed treatments. The cancer-specific mortality reductions after screening detection are quantified by a cause-specific hazard ratio. For this, we propose two estimators, based on an estimating equation and a likelihood expression. The methods extend existing instrumental variable methods for time-to-event and competing risks outcomes to time-dependent intermediate variables. Using the multi-state model as the basis of a data generating mechanism, we investigate the performance of the new estimators through simulation studies. In addition, we illustrate the proposed method in the context of CT screening for lung cancer using the US National Lung Screening Trial data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sudipta Saha
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5T 3M7, Canada
| | - Zhihui Liu
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Olli Saarela
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5T 3M7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Sentinel lymph node biopsy is a key tool in the care of many patients with melanoma. The indications for the procedure have gradually become clearer over the 3 decades since the technique was developed. For appropriately selected patients, it carries enormous significance. Although it is a minimally invasive procedure, it does carry some risk. It is also a multidisciplinary procedure, requiring knowledge and experience from several specialties including nuclear medicine, surgery, and pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Crystal
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mark B Faries
- The Angeles Clinic and Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 11800 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 300, Los Angeles, CA 90025, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
A New Compromise Design Plan for Accelerated Failure Time Models with Temperature as an Acceleration Factor. MATHEMATICS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/math9080836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An accelerated life test of a product or material consists of the observation of its failure time when it is subjected to conditions that stress the usual ones. The purpose is to obtain the parameters of the distribution of the time-to-failure for usual conditions through the observed failure times. A widely used method to provoke an early failure in a mechanism is to modify the temperature at which it is used. In this paper, the statistically optimal plan for Accelerated Failure Time (AFT) models, when the accelerated failure process is described making use of Arrhenius or Eyring equations, was calculated. The result was a design that had only two stress levels, as is common in other AFT models and that is not always practical. A new compromise plan was presented as an alternative to the widely used “4:2:1 plan”. The three-point mixture design proposed specified a support point in the interval that was optimal for the estimation of the parameters in AFT models, rather than simply the middle point. It was studied in comparison to different commonly used designs, and it proved to have a higher D-efficiency than the others.
Collapse
|
9
|
Jia B, Zeng D, Liao JJZ, Liu GF, Tan X, Diao G, Ibrahim JG. Inferring latent heterogeneity using many feature variables supervised by survival outcome. Stat Med 2021; 40:3181-3195. [PMID: 33819928 PMCID: PMC8237103 DOI: 10.1002/sim.8972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In cancer studies, it is important to understand disease heterogeneity among patients so that precision medicine can particularly target high-risk patients at the right time. Many feature variables such as demographic variables and biomarkers, combined with a patient's survival outcome, can be used to infer such latent heterogeneity. In this work, we propose a mixture model to model each patient's latent survival pattern, where the mixing probabilities for latent groups are modeled through a multinomial distribution. The Bayesian information criterion is used for selecting the number of latent groups. Furthermore, we incorporate variable selection with the adaptive lasso into inference so that only a few feature variables will be selected to characterize the latent heterogeneity. We show that our adaptive lasso estimator has oracle properties when the number of parameters diverges with the sample size. The finite sample performance is evaluated by the simulation study, and the proposed method is illustrated by two datasets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beilin Jia
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Donglin Zeng
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Guanghan F Liu
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc, Kenilworth, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Xianming Tan
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Guoqing Diao
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, The George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Joseph G Ibrahim
- Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Chen J, Tran-Dinh Q, Kosorok MR, Liu Y. Identifying Heterogeneous Effect Using Latent Supervised Clustering With Adaptive Fusion. J Comput Graph Stat 2020; 30:43-54. [DOI: 10.1080/10618600.2020.1763808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jingxiang Chen
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Quoc Tran-Dinh
- Department of Statistics and Operations Research, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Michael R. Kosorok
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Department of Statistics and Operations Research, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Yufeng Liu
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Department of Statistics and Operations Research, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Department of Genetics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Ch€apel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Yuan A, Zhou Y, Tan MT. Subgroup analysis with a nonparametric unimodal symmetric error distribution. COMMUN STAT-THEOR M 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/03610926.2019.1710754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ao Yuan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA
| | - Yizhao Zhou
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA
| | - Ming T. Tan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Nijhuis AA, de A.O. Santos Filho ID, Uren RF, Thompson JF, Nieweg OE. Clinical importance and surgical management of sentinel lymph nodes in the popliteal fossa of melanoma patients. Eur J Surg Oncol 2019; 45:1706-1711. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejso.2019.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
|
13
|
Stadler R, Leiter U, Garbe C. Kein Überlebensvorteil beim Sentinel-Lymphknoten-positiven Melanom mit sofortiger kompletter Lymphadenektomie - eine Übersicht. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2019; 17:7-14. [DOI: 10.1111/ddg.13707_g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf Stadler
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie; Klinikum Johannes Wesling in Minden; Universitätsklinikum Ruhr; Bochum
| | - Ulrike Leiter
- Zentrum für Dermatoonkologie; Universitäts-Hautklinik; Eberhard Karls Universität; Tübingen
| | - Claus Garbe
- Zentrum für Dermatoonkologie; Universitäts-Hautklinik; Eberhard Karls Universität; Tübingen
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Stadler R, Leiter U, Garbe C. Lack of survival benefit in sentinel lymph node-positive melanoma with immediate complete lymphadenectomy - a review. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges 2018; 17:7-13. [DOI: 10.1111/ddg.13707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf Stadler
- University Hospital for Dermatology; Johannes Wesling Clinical Centre in Minden; Ruhr University Hospital; Bochum Germany
| | - Ulrike Leiter
- Centre for Dermato-oncology; University Department of Dermatology, Eberhard Karls University; Tübingen Germany
| | - Claus Garbe
- Centre for Dermato-oncology; University Department of Dermatology, Eberhard Karls University; Tübingen Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kudchadkar RR, Michielin O, van Akkooi ACJ. Practice-Changing Developments in Stage III Melanoma: Surgery, Adjuvant Targeted Therapy, and Immunotherapy. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2018; 38:759-762. [PMID: 30231370 DOI: 10.1200/edbk_200241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we will focus on the practice-changing developments for stage III melanoma, from the use of the sentinel node (SN) biopsy to complete lymph node dissection (CLND) and upcoming adjuvant therapies. MSLT-1 (Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial-1) was the first and only prospective randomized controlled trial to examine whether the SN biopsy has any notable melanoma-specific survival benefit (primary endpoint). MSLT-1 randomly assigned 2,001 patients to undergo either wide local excision (WLE) and an SN biopsy or WLE and nodal observation. Two prospective randomized controlled trials have examined the potential benefit for immediate CLND versus delayed CLND after sequential observation. Both the DECOG-SLT and MSLT-2 trials failed to demonstrate a notable benefit for immediate CLND; therefore, sequential follow-up with ultrasonography and a delayed CLND in the case of relapse should be considered the new standard of care. The CheckMate 238 study demonstrated a notable benefit for adjuvant nivolumab in terms of 18-month relapse-free survival (RFS) rates compared with high-dose adjuvant ipilimumab. Single-agent adjuvant BRAF inhibition has been examined and failed to improve RFS. However, the COMBI-AD study did demonstrate a substantial benefit for combination BRAF and MEK inhibition for patients with BRAF-mutated resected stage IIIA to IIIC melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ragini R Kudchadkar
- From the Department of Hematology/Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA; Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland; Department of Surgical Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Olivier Michielin
- From the Department of Hematology/Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA; Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland; Department of Surgical Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Alexander C J van Akkooi
- From the Department of Hematology/Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA; Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland; Department of Surgical Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kim HJ, Lu B, Nehus EJ, Kim MO. Estimating heterogeneous treatment effects for latent subgroups in observational studies. Stat Med 2018; 38:339-353. [PMID: 30232820 DOI: 10.1002/sim.7970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Individuals may vary in their responses to treatment, and identification of subgroups differentially affected by a treatment is an important issue in medical research. The risk of misleading subgroup analyses has become well known, and some exploratory analyses can be helpful in clarifying how covariates potentially interact with the treatment. Motivated by a real data study of pediatric kidney transplant, we consider a semiparametric Bayesian latent model and examine its utility for an exploratory subgroup effect analysis using secondary data. The proposed method is concerned with a clinical setting where the number of subgroups is much smaller than that of potential predictors and subgroups are only latently associated with observed covariates. The semiparametric model is flexible in capturing the latent structure driven by data rather than dictated by parametric modeling assumptions. Since it is difficult to correctly specify the conditional relationship between the response and a large number of confounders in modeling, we use propensity score matching to improve the model robustness by balancing the covariates distribution. Simulation studies show that the proposed analysis can find the latent subgrouping structure and, with propensity score matching adjustment, yield robust estimates even when the outcome model is misspecified. In the real data analysis, the proposed analysis reports significant subgroup effects on steroid avoidance in kidney transplant patients, whereas standard proportional hazards regression analysis does not.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hang J Kim
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Bo Lu
- Division of Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Edward J Nehus
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Mi-Ok Kim
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, California
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Nieweg OE, Cooper A, Thompson JF. The role of sentinel lymph node biopsy as a staging procedure in patients with melanoma - A critical appraisal. Australas J Dermatol 2018; 59:235-236. [DOI: 10.1111/ajd.12839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Omgo E. Nieweg
- Melanoma Institute Australia; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW Australia
- Sydney Medical School; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW Australia
- Department of Melanoma and Surgical Oncology; Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; Camperdown NSW Australia
| | - Alan Cooper
- Sydney Medical School - Northern; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW Australia
- Department of Dermatology; Royal North Shore Hospital; St Leonards NSW Australia
| | - John F. Thompson
- Melanoma Institute Australia; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW Australia
- Sydney Medical School; The University of Sydney; Sydney NSW Australia
- Department of Melanoma and Surgical Oncology; Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; Camperdown NSW Australia
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Yuan A, Chen X, Zhou Y, Tan MT. Subgroup analysis with semiparametric models toward precision medicine. Stat Med 2018; 37:1830-1845. [PMID: 29575056 DOI: 10.1002/sim.7638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In analyzing clinical trials, one important objective is to classify the patients into treatment-favorable and nonfavorable subgroups. Existing parametric methods are not robust, and the commonly used classification rules ignore the fact that the implications of treatment-favorable and nonfavorable subgroups can be different. To address these issues, we propose a semiparametric model, incorporating both our knowledge and uncertainty about the true model. The Wald statistics is used to test the existence of subgroups, while the Neyman-Pearson rule to classify each subject. Asymptotic properties are derived, simulation studies are conducted to evaluate the performance of the method, and then method is used to analyze a real-world trial data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ao Yuan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
| | - Xiaofei Chen
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
| | - Yizhao Zhou
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
| | - Ming T Tan
- Department of Biostatistics, Bioinformatics and Biomathematics, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Wang Q, Ma Y, Wang Y. Predicting disease Risk by Transformation Models in the Presence of Unspecified Subgroup Membership. Stat Sin 2018; 27:1857-1878. [PMID: 29097879 DOI: 10.5705/ss.202016.0199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Some biomedical studies lead to mixture data. When a discrete covariate defining subgroup membership is missing for some of the subjects in a study, the distribution of the outcome follows a mixture distribution of the subgroup-specific distributions. Taking into account the uncertain distribution of the group membership and the covariates, we model the relation between the disease onset time and the covariates through transformation models in each sub-population, and develop a nonparametric maximum likelihood based estimation implemented through EM algorithm along with its inference procedure. We further propose methods to identify the covariates that have different effects or common effects in distinct populations, which enables parsimonious modeling and better understanding of the difference across populations. The methods are illustrated through extensive simulation studies and a real data example.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Wang
- University of South Carolina, Penn State University and Columbia University
| | - Yanyuan Ma
- University of South Carolina, Penn State University and Columbia University
| | - Yuanjia Wang
- University of South Carolina, Penn State University and Columbia University
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Gyorki DE, Barbour A, Hanikeri M, Mar V, Sandhu S, Thompson JF. When is a sentinel node biopsy indicated for patients with primary melanoma? An update of the ‘Australian guidelines for the management of cutaneous melanoma’. Australas J Dermatol 2017; 58:274-277. [DOI: 10.1111/ajd.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David E Gyorki
- Division of Cancer Surgery; Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; Melbourne Victoria Australia
- Department of Surgery; University of Melbourne; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Andrew Barbour
- Upper Gastrointestinal and Soft Tissue Unit; Princess Alexandra Hospital; Brisbane Queensland Australia
- Surgical Oncology Laboratory; Discipline of Surgery; University of Queensland; Brisbane Queensland Australia
| | - Mark Hanikeri
- Western Australia Melanoma Advisory Service; Perth Western Australia Australia
| | - Victoria Mar
- Victorian Melanoma Service; Alfred Hospital; Melbourne Victoria Australia
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
- Skin and Cancer Foundation Inc.; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - Shahneen Sandhu
- Division of Cancer Medicine; Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - John F Thompson
- Melanoma Institute Australia; Poche Centre; Sydney New South Wales Australia
- Discipline of Surgery; University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales Australia
- Department of Melanoma and Surgical Oncology; Royal Prince Alfred Hospital; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Nieweg OE, Cooper A, Thompson JF. Role of sentinel lymph node biopsy as a staging procedure in patients with melanoma: A critical appraisal. Australas J Dermatol 2017; 58:268-273. [PMID: 28707391 DOI: 10.1111/ajd.12655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide, sentinel node (SN) biopsy for accurate staging is now part of the standard work-up of patients with melanomas ≥1.0 mm Breslow thickness, as it is for staging patients with breast cancer. Nuclear medicine imaging and surgical techniques have evolved to such a degree that a SN can be identified and removed in virtually every patient. Nevertheless, some opposition to a routine SN biopsy remains, perhaps due to a failure to appreciate the serious implications of incomplete or inaccurate staging. Guided by a critical appraisal of the available evidence, this review elucidates the definition of an SN, discusses the sensitivity and specificity of the information it provides, emphasises that it is a minor staging procedure that can lead to improved survival when followed by appropriate therapy, and explains the necessarily unconventional and complex design of the only randomised trial that addresses this subject. It also describes other benefits and risks of an SN biopsy and outlines its role in current melanoma management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Omgo E Nieweg
- Melanoma Institute Australia, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Melanoma and Surgical Oncology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alan Cooper
- Department of Dermatology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Sydney Medical School - Northern, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - John F Thompson
- Melanoma Institute Australia, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Melanoma and Surgical Oncology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kyrgidis A, Tzellos T, Mocellin S, Apalla Z, Lallas A, Pilati P, Stratigos A. Sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by lymph node dissection for localised primary cutaneous melanoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 2015:CD010307. [PMID: 25978975 PMCID: PMC6461196 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd010307.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Melanoma is the leading cause of skin cancer-associated mortality. The vast majority of newly diagnosed melanomas are confined to the primary cutaneous site. Surgery represents the mainstay of melanoma treatment. Treatment strategies include wide excision of the primary tumour and sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) to assess the status of the regional nodal basin(s). SLNB has become an important component of initial melanoma management providing accurate disease staging. OBJECTIVES To assess the effects and safety of SLNB followed by completion lymph node dissection (CLND) for the treatment of localised primary cutaneous melanoma. SEARCH METHODS We searched the following databases up to February 2015: the Cochrane Skin Group Specialised Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library (2015, Issue 1), MEDLINE (from 1946), EMBASE (from 1974), and LILACS ((Latin American and Caribbean Health Science Information database, from 1982). We also searched the following from inception: African Index Medicus, IndMED of India, Index Medicus for the South-East Asia Region, and six trials registers. We checked the reference lists of included and excluded studies for further references to relevant randomised controlled trials (RCTs). We searched ISI Web of Science Conference Proceedings from inception to February 2015, and we scanned the abstracts of major dermatology and oncology conference proceedings up to 2015. SELECTION CRITERIA Two review authors independently assessed all RCTs comparing SLNB followed by CLND for the treatment of primary localised cutaneous melanoma for inclusion. Primary outcome measures were overall survival and rate of treatment complications and side effects. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two review authors independently extracted and analysed data on survival and recurrence, assessed risk of bias, and collected adverse effect information from included trials. MAIN RESULTS We identified and included a single eligible trial comparing SLNB with observation and published in eight different reports (from 2005 to 2014) with 2001 participants. This did not report on our first primary outcome of overall survival. The study did report on the rate of treatment complications. Our secondary outcomes of disease-specific and disease-free survival, local recurrence and distant metastases were reported. There were 1347 participants in the intermediate-thickness melanoma group and 314 in the thick melanoma group.With regard to treatment complications, short-term surgical morbidity (30 days) in 1735 participants showed no difference between SLNB and observation (risk ratio [RR] 1.11; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.9 to 1.37) for wide excision of the tumour site but favoured observation for complications related to the regional nodal basin (RR 14.36; 95% CI 6.74 to 30.59).The study did not report the actual 10-year melanoma-specific survival rate for all included participants. Instead, melanoma-specific survival rates for each group of participants: intermediate-thickness melanoma (defined as 1.2 to 3.5 mm) and thick melanomas (defined as 3.50 mm or more) was reported.In the intermediate-thickness melanoma group there was no statistically significant difference in disease-specific survival between study groups at 10 years (81.4 ± 1.5% versus 78.3 ± 2.0%, hazard ratio [HR] 0.84; 95% CI 0.65 to 1.09). In the thick melanoma group, again there was no statistically significant difference in disease-specific survival between study groups at 10 years (58.9.3 ± 4.1% versus 64.4 ± 4.6%, HR 1.12; 95% CI 0.77 to 1.64). Combining these groups there was some heterogeneity (I² = 34%) but the total HR was not statistically significant (HR 0.92; 95% CI 0.74 to 1.14). This study failed to show any difference for its stated primary outcome.The summary estimate for disease-free survival at 10 years favoured SLNB over observation in participants with intermediate-thickness and thick melanomas (HR 0.75; 95% CI 0.63 to 0.89).With regard to the rate of local and regional recurrence as the site of first recurrence, a benefit of SLNB uniformly existed in both groups of participants with intermediate-thickness and thick melanomas (RR 0.56; 95% CI 0.45 to 0.69). This is in contrast with a uniformly unfavourable effect of SLNB with regard to the rate of distant metastases as site of first recurrence, in both groups of participants with intermediate-thickness and thick melanomas (HR 1.33; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.72). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS We contacted the trial authors querying the lack of data on overall survival which was the primary outcome of their important study. They stated "there are numerous additional analyses that have yet to be reported for the trial". We expect that overall survival data will be available in a future update of this review.Disease-free survival and rate of local and regional recurrence favoured SLNB in both groups of participants with intermediate-thickness and thick melanomas but short-term surgical morbidity was higher in the SLNB group, especially with regard to complications in the nodal basin.The evidence for the outcomes of interest in this review is of low quality due to the risk of bias and imprecision of the estimated effects. Further research may have an important impact on our estimate of the effectiveness of SLNB in managing primary localised cutaneous melanoma. Currently this evidence is not sufficient to document a benefit of SLNB when compared to observation in individuals with primary localised cutaneous melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Athanassios Kyrgidis
- Dessau Medical CenterDivision of Evidence Based DermatologyDessauGermany
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)Dermatology and Skin Cancer Unit, Arcispedale Santa Maria NuovaReggio EmiliaItaly
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki1st Department of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Surgery3 Papazoli St.ThessalonikiGreece54630
| | - Thrasivoulos Tzellos
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University Hospital of North NorwayDepartment of DermatologyHarstadTromsNorway
| | - Simone Mocellin
- University of PadovaDepartment of Surgery, Oncology and GastroenterologyVia Giustiniani 2PadovaVenetoItaly35128
- IOV‐IRCCSIstituto Oncologico VenetoPadovaItaly35100
| | - Zoe Apalla
- Hospital of Skin and Venereal DiseasesState Clinic of Dermatology17, Omirou streetThessalonikiGreece55535
| | - Aimilios Lallas
- Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS)Dermatology and Skin Cancer Unit, Arcispedale Santa Maria NuovaReggio EmiliaItaly
| | - Pierluigi Pilati
- University of PadovaMeta‐Analysis Unit, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterologyvia Giustiniani 2PadovaItaly35128
| | - Alexander Stratigos
- Andreas Syggros HospitalDepartment of Dermatology, National and Kapodestrian University of Athens28 Voucourestiou StreetAthensGreece10671
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Sladden M, Zagarella S, Popescu C, Bigby M. No survival benefit for patients with melanoma undergoing sentinel lymph node biopsy: critical appraisal of the Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial-I final report. Br J Dermatol 2015; 172:566-71. [PMID: 25776246 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.13675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) was developed in the hope that it would improve outcomes for patients with melanoma. SLNB is an area of discussion and controversy in melanoma medicine. The final trial results of the Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial (MSLT-I) have now been published and the authors suggest their long-term results 'clearly validate the use of sentinel-node biopsy in patients with intermediate-thickness or thick primary melanomas'. An accompanying editorial states that MSLT-I is a practice-changing trial. CONCLUSIONS However, critical appraisal of MSLT-I data does not support the claims of the final report. On the contrary, MSLT-I failed to demonstrate that there is a significant treatment-related difference in the 10-year melanoma-specific survival rate in the overall study population. Furthermore, there was no improvement in overall or melanoma-specific survival of the intermediate-thickness group (1·2-3·5 mm). Completion lymphadenectomy can result in complications in about a third of patients, with a rate of clinically significant lymphoedema following axillary or groin dissection of 5-10%. Unnecessary lymphadenectomy can therefore have a major effect on patient quality of life. The evidence provided by Morton et al. does not support the claim that sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by lymphadenectomy in patients with positive sentinel nodes should be the standard of care in patients with melanoma. Readers are encouraged to check with registration sites to make sure declared primary outcomes are fairly reported. Post-hoc analyses are at best exploratory and cannot be used to form the principal conclusions of a trial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Sladden
- Department of Medicine, University of Tasmania, 36 Thistle St West, South Launceston, Tasmania, 7249, Australia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Faries MB, Cochran AJ, Elashoff RM, Thompson JF. Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial-I confirms the central role of sentinel node biopsy in contemporary melanoma management: response to 'No survival benefit for patients with melanoma undergoing sentinel lymph node biopsy: critical appraisal of the Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial-I final report'. Br J Dermatol 2015; 172:571-3. [PMID: 25776247 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.13676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy has become a standard procedure for many patients with melanoma and is recommended in numerous national and professional melanoma guidelines. The Multicenter Selective Lymphadenectomy Trial (MSLT-1) confirms earlier large database studies and prospective clinical trials in demonstrating the independent and unequalled prognostic value of the SLN. It also demonstrates the ability of biopsy-directed management to provide effective regional disease control with the least possible morbidity. These benefits are not in question and provide ample justification for the procedure, even without evidence of a survival benefit. However, MSLT-1 also provides strong evidence of a substantial reduction in the risk of melanoma death for patients with intermediate thickness melanomas who harbour occult nodal metastases at the time of presentation. Denying appropriately selected patients with melanoma the opportunity to undergo SLN biopsy is no longer reasonable or acceptable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M B Faries
- Departments of Surgical Oncology, John Wayne Cancer Institute at Saint John's Health Center, 2200 Santa Monica Blvd, Santa Monica, CA, 90404, U.S.A.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
Subgroup analyses are commonly performed in the clinical trial setting with the purpose of illustrating that the treatment effect was consistent across different patient characteristics or identifying characteristics that should be targeted for treatment. There are statistical issues involved in performing subgroup analyses, however. These have been given considerable attention in the literature for analyses where subgroups are defined by a pre-randomization feature. Although subgroup analyses are often performed with subgroups defined by a post-randomization feature—including analyses that estimate the treatment effect among compliers—discussion of these analyses has been neglected in the clinical literature. Such analyses pose a high risk of presenting biased descriptions of treatment effects. We summarize the challenges of doing all types of subgroup analyses described in the literature. In particular, we emphasize issues with post-randomization subgroup analyses. Finally, we provide guidelines on how to proceed across the spectrum of subgroup analyses.
Collapse
|
26
|
van Akkooi ACJ, Eggermont AMM. SLNB in melanoma-DFS a true and cost-effective benefit? Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2014; 11:nrclinonc.2014.65-c3. [PMID: 25311352 DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2014.65-c3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C J van Akkooi
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander M M Eggermont
- Cancer Institute, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Grand Paris, 114 rue Édouard Vaillant, 94805 Villejuif, France
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
|
28
|
Thompson JF, Faries MB, Cochran AJ. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for melanoma: a plea to let the data be heard. Ann Surg Oncol 2014; 21:3362-4. [PMID: 25103536 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-014-3967-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John F Thompson
- Melanoma Institute Australia and the University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia,
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
|
30
|
Coit D. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for melanoma: a plea to let the data speak. Ann Surg Oncol 2014; 21:3359-61. [PMID: 25059791 DOI: 10.1245/s10434-014-3947-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Coit
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA,
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
|
32
|
Lin H, Li Y, Jiang L, Li G. A semiparametric linear transformation model to estimate causal effects for survival data. CAN J STAT 2014; 42:18-35. [PMID: 31660001 DOI: 10.1002/cjs.11198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Semiparametric linear transformation models serve as useful alternatives to the Cox proportional hazard model. In this study, we use the semiparametric linear transformation model to analyze survival data with selective compliance. We estimate regression parameters and the transformation function based on pseudo-likelihood and a series of estimating equations. We show that the estimators for the regression parameters and transformation function are consistent and asymptotically normal, and both converge to their true values at the rate of n -1/2, the convergence rate expected for a parametric model. The practical utility of the methods is confirmed via simulations as well as an application of a clinical trial to evaluate the effectiveness of sentinel node biopsy in guiding the treatment of invasive melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huazhen Lin
- Center of Statistical Research, School of Statistics, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Yi Li
- Center of Statistical Research, School of Statistics, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, Sichuan, P. R. China
| | - Liang Jiang
- School of Mathematics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610064, P. R. China
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Morton DL, Thompson JF, Cochran AJ, Mozzillo N, Nieweg OE, Roses DF, Hoekstra HJ, Karakousis CP, Puleo CA, Coventry BJ, Kashani-Sabet M, Smithers BM, Paul E, Kraybill WG, McKinnon JG, Wang HJ, Elashoff R, Faries MB. Final trial report of sentinel-node biopsy versus nodal observation in melanoma. N Engl J Med 2014; 370:599-609. [PMID: 24521106 PMCID: PMC4058881 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1310460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1003] [Impact Index Per Article: 100.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sentinel-node biopsy, a minimally invasive procedure for regional melanoma staging, was evaluated in a phase 3 trial. METHODS We evaluated outcomes in 2001 patients with primary cutaneous melanomas randomly assigned to undergo wide excision and nodal observation, with lymphadenectomy for nodal relapse (observation group), or wide excision and sentinel-node biopsy, with immediate lymphadenectomy for nodal metastases detected on biopsy (biopsy group). Results No significant treatment-related difference in the 10-year melanoma-specific survival rate was seen in the overall study population (20.8% with and 79.2% without nodal metastases). Mean (± SE) 10-year disease-free survival rates were significantly improved in the biopsy group, as compared with the observation group, among patients with intermediate-thickness melanomas, defined as 1.20 to 3.50 mm (71.3 ± 1.8% vs. 64.7 ± 2.3%; hazard ratio for recurrence or metastasis, 0.76; P=0.01), and those with thick melanomas, defined as >3.50 mm (50.7 ± 4.0% vs. 40.5 ± 4.7%; hazard ratio, 0.70; P=0.03). Among patients with intermediate-thickness melanomas, the 10-year melanoma-specific survival rate was 62.1 ± 4.8% among those with metastasis versus 85.1 ± 1.5% for those without metastasis (hazard ratio for death from melanoma, 3.09; P<0.001); among patients with thick melanomas, the respective rates were 48.0 ± 7.0% and 64.6 ± 4.9% (hazard ratio, 1.75; P=0.03). Biopsy-based management improved the 10-year rate of distant disease-free survival (hazard ratio for distant metastasis, 0.62; P=0.02) and the 10-year rate of melanoma-specific survival (hazard ratio for death from melanoma, 0.56; P=0.006) for patients with intermediate-thickness melanomas and nodal metastases. Accelerated-failure-time latent-subgroup analysis was performed to account for the fact that nodal status was initially known only in the biopsy group, and a significant treatment benefit persisted. CONCLUSIONS Biopsy-based staging of intermediate-thickness or thick primary melanomas provides important prognostic information and identifies patients with nodal metastases who may benefit from immediate complete lymphadenectomy. Biopsy-based management prolongs disease-free survival for all patients and prolongs distant disease-free survival and melanoma-specific survival for patients with nodal metastases from intermediate-thickness melanomas. (Funded by the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, and the Australia and New Zealand Melanoma Trials Group; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00275496.).
Collapse
|