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Lysophosphatidylcholine triggers cell differentiation in the protozoan parasite Herpetomonas samuelpessoai through the CK2 pathway. Acta Parasitol 2020; 65:108-117. [PMID: 31755068 DOI: 10.2478/s11686-019-00135-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protozoa are distantly related to vertebrates but present some features of higher eukaryotes, making them good model systems for studying the evolution of basic processes such as the cell cycle. Herpetomonas samuelpessoai is a trypanosomatid parasite isolated from the hemipteran insect Zelus leucogrammus. Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) is implicated in the transmission and establishment of Chagas disease, whose etiological agent is Trypanosoma cruzi. LPC is synthesized by T. cruzi and its vectors, the hemipteran Rhodnius prolixus and Triatoma infestans. Platelet-activating factor (PAF), a phospholipid with potent and diverse physiological and pathophysiological actions, is a powerful inducer of cell differentiation in Herpetomonas muscarum muscarum and T. cruzi. The enzyme phospholipase A2 (PLA2) catalyzes the hydrolysis of the 2-ester bond of 3-sn-phosphoglyceride, transforming phosphatidylcholine (PC) into LPC. METHODS In this study, we evaluated cellular differentiation, PLA2 activity and protein kinase CK2 activity of H. samuelpessoai in the absence and in the presence of LPC and PAF. RESULTS We demonstrate that both PC and LPC promoted a twofold increase in the cellular differentiation of H. samuelpessoai, through CK2, with a concomitant inhibition of its cell growth. Intrinsic PLA2 most likely directs this process by converting PC into LPC. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the actions of LPC on H. samuelpessoai occur upon binding to a putative PAF receptor and that the protein kinase CK2 plays a major role in this process. Cartoon depicting a model for the synthesis and functions of LPC in Herpetomonas samuelpessoai, based upon our results regarding the role of LPC on the cell biology of Trypanosoma cruzi [28-32]. N nucleus, k kinetoplast, PC phosphatidylcholine, LPC lysophosphatidylcholine, PLA2 phospholipase A2, PAFR putative PAF receptor in trypanosomatids [65], CK2 protein kinase CK2 [16].
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Wheeler RJ, Sunter JD, Gull K. Flagellar pocket restructuring through the Leishmania life cycle involves a discrete flagellum attachment zone. J Cell Sci 2016; 129:854-67. [PMID: 26746239 PMCID: PMC4760377 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.183152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania promastigote parasites have a flagellum, which protrudes from the flagellar pocket at the cell anterior, yet, surprisingly, have homologs of many flagellum attachment zone (FAZ) proteins – proteins used in the related Trypanosoma species to laterally attach the flagellum to the cell body from the flagellar pocket to the cell posterior. Here, we use seven Leishmania mexicana cell lines that expressed eYFP fusions of FAZ protein homologs to show that the Leishmania flagellar pocket includes a FAZ structure. Electron tomography revealed a precisely defined 3D organisation for both the flagellar pocket and FAZ, with striking similarities to those of Trypanosoma brucei. Expression of two T. brucei FAZ proteins in L. mexicana showed that T. brucei FAZ proteins can assemble into the Leishmania FAZ structure. Leishmania therefore have a previously unrecognised FAZ structure, which we show undergoes major structural reorganisation in the transition from the promastigote (sandfly vector) to amastigote (in mammalian macrophages). Morphogenesis of the Leishmania flagellar pocket, a structure important for pathogenicity, is therefore intimately associated with a FAZ; a finding with implications for understanding shape changes involving component modules during evolution. Summary:Leishmania parasites have a highly structured flagellar pocket, including a structure homologous to the Trypanosoma brucei flagellum attachment zone, which undergoes structural adaptations in different life cycle stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Wheeler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, Dresden 01307, Germany Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Jack D Sunter
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Keith Gull
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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Abstract
The larvae of Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae) exploit a broad spectrum of larval pabula. Consequently, the species features in a range of situations that affect the resources or well-being of humans. Furthermore, M. scalaris is readily cultured in the laboratory and is therefore favored as an experimental species for genetic, developmental, and bioassay studies. However, the extensive but widely scattered literature, reviewed herein, is frequently ignored by specialists, which gives rise to the unwitting repetition of previous work as well as insupportable proposals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H L Disney
- Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, UK.
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CURRENT WILLIAML, JANOVY JOHN, KNIGHT STEPHENA. Myxosoma funduliKudo (Myxosporida) inFundulus kansae: Ultrastructure of the Plasmodium Wall and of Sporogenesis*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1979.tb04198.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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YOSHIDA N, FREYMÜLLER E, WALLACE FG. Herpetomonas mariadeaneisp. n. (Protozoa, Trypanosomatidae) fromMuscina stabulans(Falléen, 1816) (Diptera, Muscidae)*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1978.tb04161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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ROWTON EDGARD, LUSHBAUGH WILLIAMB, McGHEE RBARCLAY. Ultrastructure of the Flagellar Apparatus and Attachment ofHerpetomonas ampelophilaein the Gut and Malpighian Tubules ofDrosophila melanogaster1. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1981.tb02854.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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ROWTON EDGARD, McGHEE RBARCLAY. Transmission ofHerpetomonasin Laboratory Populations ofDrosophila melanogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1983.tb05341.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Merzlyak E, Yurchenko V, Kolesnikov AA, Alexandrov K, Podlipaev SA, Maslov DA. Diversity and phylogeny of insect trypanosomatids based on small subunit rRNA genes: polyphyly of Leptomonas and Blastocrithidia. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2001; 48:161-9. [PMID: 12095103 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00298.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
With the aim of further investigating phylogenetic relationships in insect trypanosomatids, we have determined the sequences of small subunit rRNA genes from ten isolates, which were originally classified as Leptomonas, Blastocrithidia, and Wallaceina based on their morphology in the hosts. The inferred maximum likelihood, parsimony, and distance trees indicate that the Leptomonas and Blastocrithidia are polyphyletic, and confirm the polyphyly of Herpetomonas and Crithidia. Blastocrithidia triatoma and Leptomonas collosoma were among the earliest branching lineages among the insect trypanosomatids, while most other isolates were found within a closely related terminal clade, which also included Crithidia fasciculata. This analysis has clearly demonstrated that the morphological classification system of insect trypanosomatids does not always reflect their genetic affinities warranting its revision in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Merzlyak
- Department of Molecular Biology, Moscow State University, Russia
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Vannier-Santos MA, Martiny A, Lins U, Urbina JA, Borges VM, de Souza W. Impairment of sterol biosynthesis leads to phosphorus and calcium accumulation in Leishmania acidocalcisomes. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 1999; 145 ( Pt 11):3213-3220. [PMID: 10589730 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-145-11-3213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The induction of the formation of inclusion vesicles in Leishmania amazonensis by the sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBI) ketoconazole and terbinafine has been reported previously. These compartments were recently identified as acidocalcisomes. By the use of electron spectroscopic imaging and energy loss spectroscopy, the presence of calcium, phosphorus and oxygen in the electron-dense inclusions located within the acidocalcisomes has been demonstrated. Endoplasmic reticulum cisternae formed membrane whorls which enclosed large portions of the cytoplasm and sometimes circumscribed acidocalcisomes. In addition, acid phosphatase activity, as well as the endocytic tracers horseradish peroxidase and gold-labelled transferrin and cystatin C were detected within these organelles in both SBI-treated and untreated parasites. These data suggest that impairment of sterol biosynthesis induces the biogenesis of acidocalcisomes and triggers an autophagic process that leads to intersection of the endosomal/lysosomal system with the acidocalcisomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos A Vannier-Santos
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular Parasitária, Programa de Biologia Celular e Parasitologia, Instituto de Biofı́sica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CCS, Bloco G, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21949-900, Brazil1
| | - Andrea Martiny
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular Parasitária, Programa de Biologia Celular e Parasitologia, Instituto de Biofı́sica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CCS, Bloco G, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, 21949-900, Brazil1
| | - Ulysses Lins
- Setor de Microscopia Eletrônica e Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Professor Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil2
| | - Julio A Urbina
- Laboratório de Quı́mica Biológica, Instituto Venezoelano de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas-IVIC, Venezuela3
| | - Valéria M Borges
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofı́sica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil4
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofı́sica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil4
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Abstract
Leishmania differentiation in the gut of phlebotomine sand flies was evaluated based on five light and electron microscopic studies of natural (Leishmania panamensis/Lutzomyia gomezi, Leishmania chagasi/Lutzomyia longipalpis) and unnatural (Leishmania mexicana/Lutzomyia abonnenci, Leishmania panamensis/Phlebotomus papatasi, Leishmania major/Lutzomyia longipalpis) life cycles. In the bloodmeal, transformation of amastigotes into stumpy promastigotes occurred before or during division. Further division in pairs or rosettes resulted in the development of spatulate and/or elongate nectomonad (free-swimming) promastigotes. Elongate, short, and metacyclic nectomonad promastigotes, and nectomonad paramastigotes were present in the midgut lumen. Dividing short promastigotes predominated in the cardia, and appeared to generate metacyclic forms which were observed in three life cycles. Haptomonad (attached) forms of Leishmania panamensis in the hindgut were primarily spatulate promastigotes (natural host) or pear-shaped promastigotes (unnatural host); paramastigotes and dividing forms were rare. At the stomodeal valve, short haptomonad promastigotes predominated in unnatural hosts, while both short and pear-shaped haptomonads were abundant, along with paramastigotes in natural hosts. Haptomonad paramastigotes and pear-shaped promastigotes colonized the esophagus, while paramastigotes predominated in the pharynx. Metacyclics were free-swimming in the lumen of the foregut.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Walters
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks 99775-0180
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Faria e Silva PM, Solé-Cava AM, Soares MJ, Motta MC, Fiorini JE, de Souza W. Herpetomonas roitmani (Fiorini et al., 1989) n. comb.: a trypanosomatid with a bacterium-like endosymbiont in the cytoplasm. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1991; 38:489-94. [PMID: 1920148 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1991.tb04822.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The trypanosomatid previously described as Crithidia roitmani is characterized here at the ultrastructural and biochemical levels. The data indicates that the parasite belongs to the Herpetomonas genus, and we therefore suggest the flagellate to be denominated as Herpetomonas roitmani n. comb. Cladistic analysis of isoenzyme data generated by eight different enzymes showed that the parasite presented a distinct banding pattern and could be grouped with some Herpetomonas spp., but not with Crithidia spp., used as reference strains. Accordingly, when the parasites were grown for longer periods in Roitman's defined medium, expontaneous differentiation from promastigotes to opisthomastigotes (typical of the Herpetomonas genus) occurred. Transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence of bacterium-like endosymbionts in the cytoplasm of all evolutive forms of the parasite. All morphological alterations characteristic of endosymbiont-bearing trypanosomatids could be observed.
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Fiorini JE, Roitman I, Angluster J, Alviano CS, Silva-Filho FCE, de Souza W. Herpetomonas megaseliae: Effect of lipopolysaccharide on cell-surface anionogenic groups. Parasitol Res 1991. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00935422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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de Araujo Soares RM, Alviano CS, Esteves MJ, Angluster J, Costa e Silva-Filho F, de Souza W. Changes in cell surface anionogenic groups during differentiation of Herpetomonas samuelpessoai mediated by dimethylsulfoxide. CELL BIOPHYSICS 1988; 13:29-41. [PMID: 2456150 DOI: 10.1007/bf02797363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The surface anionic groups of untreated or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-treated Herpetomonas samuelpessoai cells were analyzed by cell electrophoresis, ultrastructural cytochemistry, and identification of sialic acids using thin-layer chromatography. Differentiation of H. samuelpessoai induced by DMSO treatment caused a significant increase in the net negative surface charge. In flagellates exposed to DMSO, more cationized ferritin, colloidal iron hydroxide, and sendai virus particles bound to the cell surface. Treatment of both untreated and DMSO-treated flagellates with neuraminidase decreased markedly the EPM of cells to the cathodic pole. These findings suggest that sialic acid residues are the major anionogenic groups exposed on the surface of H. samuelpessoai. Thin-layer chromatography showed that N-acetyl and N,O-diacylneuraminic acids, in equal proportions, were present in H. samuelpessoai. However, N-acetylneuraminic acid predominates in DMSO-treated cells.
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Trypanosoma chattoni Mathis & Leger, 1911 in Rana pipiens of southern Ontario: morphometrics and a description of the division process. Syst Parasitol 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00009897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Castellanos GB, Menezes S, Angluster J, De Souza W, Caldas LR. Effect of methylene blue and illumination on the process of differentiation of the protozoan Herpetomonas samuelpessoai. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RADIATION BIOLOGY AND RELATED STUDIES IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND MEDICINE 1985; 47:191-5. [PMID: 3872273 DOI: 10.1080/09553008514550261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Herpetomonas samuelpessoai is a non-pathogenic protozoan that shares important antigens with Trypanosoma cruzi (the agent of Chagas' disease) and which shows three developmental stages: promastigote, paramastigote and the highly differentiated form opisthomastigote. Due to the difficulties in obtaining the last form, its physiology and biochemistry are not well understood, and procedures which can induce the process of differentiation promastigote-opisthomastigote are desirable. In this work we show that illumination of H. samuelpessoai with white light in the presence of methylene blue and oxygen (photodynamic effect) triggers the process of differentiation in a very efficient manner (the cultures show up to 70 per cent of the cells in the opisthomastigote form). We also observed that illumination alone and incubation with methylene blue in the dark can trigger the process but in levels markedly lower than illumination in the presence of the dye.
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Camargo EP, Mattei DM, Barbieri CL, Morel CM. Electrophoretic analysis of endonuclease-generated fragments of k-DNA, of esterase isoenzymes, and of surface proteins as aids for species identification of insect trypanosomatids. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1982; 29:251-8. [PMID: 6284925 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1982.tb04022.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
In order to verify the applicability of biochemical methods for species identification of Trypanosomatidae, 13 species of monoxenic trypanosomatids plus the heteroxenous Trypanosoma cruzi were comparatively analyzed by three different biochemical methods. Insect trypanosomatids examined were: Crithidia acanthocephali, C. fasciculata (three varieties), C. luciliae luciliae, C. luciliae thermophila, C. deanei, C. oncopelti, Herpetomonas muscarum muscarum, H. megaseliae, H. samuelpessoai, H. mariadeanei, Leptomonas seymouri, L. collosoma, L. samueli, and Blastocrithidia culicis. Also included in the survey were aposymbiotic strains of C. deanei and C. oncopelti. Methods used were: electrophoretic profiling of endonuclease-generated fragments of k-DNA, esterase isoenzymes profiling, and polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of radioiodinated cell surface proteins. Interspecific but not intraspecific differences were detected by all three methods among the 13 monoxenic species examined. Thus, it is concluded that these methods can be successfully used, in addition to classical criteria, for species identification of insect trypanosomatids.
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Freymuller E, Camargo EP. Ultrastructural differences between species of trypanosomatids with and without endosymbionts. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1981; 28:175-82. [PMID: 7024533 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1981.tb02829.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Species of trypanosomatids without endosymbionts (Leptomonas seymouri, L. collosoma, L. samueli, crithidia fasciculata, C. luciliae, C. acanthocephali, Herpetomonas megaseliae, H. mariadeanei, H. samuelpessoai, H. muscarum muscarum, Trypanosoma cruzi) and species of trypanosomatids with endosymbionts (Crithidia deanei, C. oncopelti, Blastocrithidia culicis) were comparatively studied by means of electron microscopy. Artificially aposymbiotic strains derived from species with symbiont were also included in the survey. Species with symbiont were found to differ in some ultrastructural aspects from the group of species without symbiont. Paraxial rods of flagella or intraflagellar structure were found exclusively in species without symbiont. Peripheral branching of mitochondria, accompanied by absence of subpellicular microtubules in sites where the mitochondrial branches are appressed to the cell membrane, were found exclusively in species with symbiont. Networks of kinetoplast DNA fibrils were found to be larger and looser in species with symbiont. Symbiont-free strains of species with symbiont retained the same morphological characteristics of their parental species.
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de Carvalho TU, Souto-Padrón T, de Souza W. Herpetomonas samuelpessoai: electron microscopy and cytochemistry of electron-dense granules. Exp Parasitol 1979; 47:297-304. [PMID: 446584 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(79)90082-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Current WL, Janovy J. Comparative study of ultrastructure of interlamellar and intralamellar types of Henneguya exilis Kudo from channel catfish. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1978; 25:56-65. [PMID: 660571 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1978.tb03868.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The inter- and intralamellar types of Henneguya exilis Kudo (Myxosporida) infections from channel catfish are similar in spore structure and sporogenesis, but differ in the structure of their plasmodium wall and surface coat and in their relationship with the host cells. The 2 clinical types differ also in the sites of development and growth patterns of plasmodia within a gill filament. Interlamellar plasmodia are limited by 2 outer unit membranes which give rise to both single-and double-membraned pincytic canals. Intralamellar plasmodia are limited by a single outer unit membrane which gives rise to single-membraned pinocytic canals. Interlamellar plasmodia are covered by a fine granular coat of highly variable thicknesses; in some regions there is direct contact between the parasite and cells of the host. There is some evidence that host cell cytoplasm as well as interstitial material are taken in by interlamellar plasmodia. In contrast, intralamellar plasmodia are covered by a fine granular coat of almost uniform thickness, which prevents direct contact between the parasite and cells of the host; probably only interstitial material is taken by these plasmodia.
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Roitman I, Brener Z, Roitman C, Kitajima EW. Demonstration that Leptomonas pessoai Galvão, Oliveira, Carvalho & Veiga, 1970, is a Herpetomonas. THE JOURNAL OF PROTOZOOLOGY 1976; 23:291-3. [PMID: 933085 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1976.tb03773.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Leptomonas pessoai from the reduviid hemipteron Zelus leucogrammus, was cloned. The original strain (ATCC 30252) and clones can differentiate from promastigote to opisthomastigote. Differentiation is faster at high temperature (37 C) and in a defined medium as compared with a complex medium. It is suggested that Leptomonas pessoai be designated Herpetomonas samuelpessoai.
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