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Guo Y, Jin W, Wang W, Guo Z, He Y. Unsupervised convolutional variational autoencoder deep embedding clustering for Raman spectra. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2022; 14:3898-3910. [PMID: 36169059 DOI: 10.1039/d2ay01184k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Unsupervised deep learning methods place increased emphasis on the process of cluster analysis of unknown samples without requiring sample labels. Clustering algorithms based on deep embedding networks have been recently developed and are widely used in data mining, speech processing and image recognition, but barely any of them have been used on spectra data. This study presents an unsupervised clustering algorithm for Raman spectra, called the convolutional variational autoencoder deep embedding clustering method (CVDE). It improves the network structure of the multi-layer perception (MLP) that is commonly used in other methods based on the VAE-GMM model, like VaDE, by replacing the hidden fully connected layer in the MLP with three convolution layers and two pooling layers for better clustering on the Raman spectra. The three convolution layers extend vertical channels to learn features, while pooling layers directly reduce the horizontal coding dimensions to prevent gradient explosion and overfitting. Furthermore, such network structures can easily incorporate the gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-Cam) method to visualise the importance of spectral features for clustering, facilitating network tuning and spectral difference analysis. Moreover, through comparative experiments, CVDE has proven that it affords better clustering performance than current advanced clustering methods on not only the MNIST dataset but also two sets of Raman spectra: soybean oil Raman spectra with very small Raman feature differences and drug Raman spectra with a small data size. The clustering accuracies of these three datasets reach 94.48%, 90.43% and 98.70% respectively. Thus, CVDE is suitable for applications in static spectra, such as Raman spectra and LIBS spectra, and is more versatile than supervised methods in the spectral and chemical analysis fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Guo
- MoE Key Lab of Photoelectronic Imaging Technology and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, 6th Teaching Building, No. 5 Yard, Zhong Guan Cun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Weiqi Jin
- MoE Key Lab of Photoelectronic Imaging Technology and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, 6th Teaching Building, No. 5 Yard, Zhong Guan Cun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Weilin Wang
- MoE Key Lab of Photoelectronic Imaging Technology and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, 6th Teaching Building, No. 5 Yard, Zhong Guan Cun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Zongyu Guo
- MoE Key Lab of Photoelectronic Imaging Technology and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, 6th Teaching Building, No. 5 Yard, Zhong Guan Cun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Yuqing He
- MoE Key Lab of Photoelectronic Imaging Technology and Systems, Beijing Institute of Technology, 6th Teaching Building, No. 5 Yard, Zhong Guan Cun South Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100081, China.
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Chemiluminescence reactions enhanced by silver nanoparticles and silver alloy nanoparticles: Applications in analytical chemistry. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Advances in the use of acidic potassium permanganate as a chemiluminescence reagent: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 807:9-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2013] [Revised: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Chemiluminescence detection of heroin in illicit drug samples. Talanta 2013; 116:619-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.07.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Waite RJ, Barbante GJ, Barnett NW, Zammit EM, Francis PS. Chemiluminescence detection of piperazine designer drugs and related compounds using tris(2,2′-bipyridine)ruthenium(III). Talanta 2013; 116:1067-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Parallel segmented outlet flow high performance liquid chromatography with multiplexed detection. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 803:154-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2013] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Holland BJ, Francis PS, Li B, Tsuzuki T, Adcock JL, Barnett NW, Conlan XA. Chemiluminescence detection of cannabinoids and related compounds with acidic potassium permanganate. Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:675-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2011] [Revised: 01/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brendan J. Holland
- Centre for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Systems Biology; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
| | - Paul S. Francis
- Centre for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Systems Biology; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
| | - Bingshan Li
- Centre for Material and Fibre Innovation; Deakin University
| | - Takuya Tsuzuki
- Centre for Material and Fibre Innovation; Deakin University
| | - Jacqui L. Adcock
- Centre for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Systems Biology; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
| | - Neil W. Barnett
- Centre for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Systems Biology; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
| | - Xavier A. Conlan
- Centre for Biotechnology, Chemistry and Systems Biology; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
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Adcock JL, Barrow CJ, Barnett NW, Conlan XA, Hogan CF, Francis PS. Chemiluminescence and electrochemiluminescence detection of controlled drugs. Drug Test Anal 2010; 3:145-60. [PMID: 21154734 DOI: 10.1002/dta.236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We review the determination of various controlled drugs (opioids, tranquilizers, stimulants, and hallucinogens) using flow-analysis methodologies (flow injection analysis, high performance liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, and microfluidic devices) with chemiluminescence and electrochemiluminescence reagents such as luminol, diaryloxalates, tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II), permanganate, manganese(IV), and sulfite, for industrial, clinical, pharmaceutical, and forensic science applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui L Adcock
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia
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Chemiluminescence detection of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) alkaloids. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2008; 48:508-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2008.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Revised: 06/27/2008] [Accepted: 06/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Adcock JL, Francis PS, Smith TA, Barnett NW. The characteristic red chemiluminescence from reactions with acidic potassium permanganate: further spectroscopic evidence for a manganese(ii) emitter. Analyst 2008; 133:49-51. [DOI: 10.1039/b714147e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Adcock JL, Francis PS, Barnett NW. Acidic potassium permanganate as a chemiluminescence reagent—A review. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 601:36-67. [PMID: 17904470 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2007] [Revised: 08/20/2007] [Accepted: 08/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A critical and comprehensive review of acidic potassium permanganate chemiluminescence is presented. This includes discussion on reaction conditions, the influence of enhancers such as polyphosphates, formaldehyde and sulfite, the relationship between analyte structure and chemiluminescence intensity, and the application of this chemistry to determine a wide variety of compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, biomolecules, antioxidants, illicit drugs, pesticides and pollutants. Previous proposals for the nature of the emitting species are re-evaluated in light of recent evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqui L Adcock
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia
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