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He R, Pagani-Núñez E, Goodale E, Barnett CRA. Avian predators taste reject mimetic prey in relation to their signal reliability. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2334. [PMID: 35149707 PMCID: PMC8837650 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05600-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematic organisms defend themselves through various means to increase their unprofitability to predators which they advertise with conspicuous warning signals. Predators learn to avoid aposematic prey through associative learning that leads to lower predation. However, when these visual signals become unreliable (e.g., through automimicry or Batesian mimicry), predators may switch from using visual signals to taste sampling prey to choose among them. In this experiment, we tested this possibility in a field experiment where we released a total of 4800 mealworm prey in two clusters consisting of either: (i) undefended prey (injected with water) and (ii) model-mimics (injected with either quinine sulphate [models] or water [mimics]). Prey were deployed at 12 sites, with the mimic frequency of the model-mimics ranging between 0 and 1 (at 0.2 intervals). We found that taste rejection peaked at moderate mimic frequencies (0.4 and 0.6), supporting the idea that taste sampling and rejection of prey is related to signal reliability and predator uncertainty. This is the first time that taste-rejection has been shown to be related to the reliability of prey signals in a mimetic prey system.
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Affiliation(s)
- R He
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, People's Republic of China
| | - E Pagani-Núñez
- Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - E Goodale
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, People's Republic of China.
| | - C R A Barnett
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, University of Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan.
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2
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Mattila ALK, Jiggins CD, Opedal ØH, Montejo-Kovacevich G, Pinheiro de Castro ÉC, McMillan WO, Bacquet C, Saastamoinen M. Evolutionary and ecological processes influencing chemical defense variation in an aposematic and mimetic Heliconius butterfly. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11523. [PMID: 34178447 PMCID: PMC8216171 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical defences against predators underlie the evolution of aposematic coloration and mimicry, which are classic examples of adaptive evolution. Surprisingly little is known about the roles of ecological and evolutionary processes maintaining defence variation, and how they may feedback to shape the evolutionary dynamics of species. Cyanogenic Heliconius butterflies exhibit diverse warning color patterns and mimicry, thus providing a useful framework for investigating these questions. We studied intraspecific variation in de novo biosynthesized cyanogenic toxicity and its potential ecological and evolutionary sources in wild populations of Heliconius erato along environmental gradients, in common-garden broods and with feeding treatments. Our results demonstrate substantial intraspecific variation, including detectable variation among broods reared in a common garden. The latter estimate suggests considerable evolutionary potential in this trait, although predicting the response to selection is likely complicated due to the observed skewed distribution of toxicity values and the signatures of maternal contributions to the inheritance of toxicity. Larval diet contributed little to toxicity variation. Furthermore, toxicity profiles were similar along steep rainfall and altitudinal gradients, providing little evidence for these factors explaining variation in biosynthesized toxicity in natural populations. In contrast, there were striking differences in the chemical profiles of H. erato from geographically distant populations, implying potential local adaptation in the acquisition mechanisms and levels of defensive compounds. The results highlight the extensive variation and potential for adaptive evolution in defense traits for aposematic and mimetic species, which may contribute to the high diversity often found in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anniina L K Mattila
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Life Science Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Current affiliation: Finnish Museum of Natural History (LUOMUS), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Marjo Saastamoinen
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Helsinki Life Science Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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3
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Imada Y. Moss mimesis par excellence: integrating previous and new data on the life history and larval ecomorphology of long-bodied craneflies (Diptera: Cylindrotomidae: Cylindrotominae). Zool J Linn Soc 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Different physical structures play a central role in animal camouflage. However, in evolutionary studies of mimicry, the ecological and evolutionary significance of such structures has been poorly investigated. Larvae of long-bodied craneflies, Cylindrotominae, are all obligate herbivores and resemble plants. They are distinctively characterized by possessing numerous elongated cuticular lobes on the integument. A comprehensive overview of the biology and morphology of cylindrotomids, particularly their larval stages, is laid out, providing original data on nine species. To explore the ecological background of moss resemblance, host-plants of most examined species are clarified, revealing that terrestrial moss-feeding species tend to use specific groups of mosses, either belonging to Bryales or Hypnales. However, the evolution of cryptic forms remains paradoxical, due to the apparent absence of visual predators. Based on histological examinations, extensive internal musculatures within the cuticular lobes on the lateral side are discovered, shedding new light on their function in locomotion. Traditional functional explanations for these lobes, particularly as devices for respiration, locomotion and attachment, are challenged. This study promotes our understanding of the ecomorphology of mimicry devices, which is an angle often dismissed in evolutionary studies of mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yume Imada
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Ehime University, Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, Ehime, Japan
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4
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Goedert D, Clement D, Calsbeek R. Evolutionary trade‐offs may interact with physiological constraints to maintain color variation. ECOL MONOGR 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecm.1430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Debora Goedert
- Department of Biological Sciences Dartmouth College Hanover03755 New Hampshire USA
- Ministry of Education of Brazil CAPES Foundation Brasília DF95616Brazil
| | - Dale Clement
- Department of Biological Sciences Dartmouth College Hanover03755 New Hampshire USA
| | - Ryan Calsbeek
- Department of Biological Sciences Dartmouth College Hanover03755 New Hampshire USA
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5
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Barnett CRA, Ringhofer M, Suzuki TN. Differences in predatory behavior among three bird species when attacking chemically defended and undefended prey. J ETHOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-020-00668-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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6
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The effect of cyanogenic glucosides and their breakdown products on predation by domestic chicks. CHEMOECOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-020-00304-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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7
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Sculfort O, de Castro ECP, Kozak KM, Bak S, Elias M, Nay B, Llaurens V. Variation of chemical compounds in wild Heliconiini reveals ecological factors involved in the evolution of chemical defenses in mimetic butterflies. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:2677-2694. [PMID: 32185010 PMCID: PMC7069300 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolutionary convergence of color pattern in mimetic species is tightly linked with the evolution of chemical defenses. Yet, the evolutionary forces involved in natural variations of chemical defenses in aposematic species are still understudied. Herein, we focus on the evolution of chemical defenses in the butterfly tribe Heliconiini. These neotropical butterflies contain large concentrations of cyanogenic glucosides, cyanide-releasing compounds acting as predator deterrent. These compounds are either de novo synthesized or sequestered from their Passiflora host plant, so that their concentrations may depend on host plant specialization and host plant availability. We sampled 375 wild Heliconiini butterflies across Central and South America, covering 43% species of this clade, and quantify individual variations in the different CGs using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. We detected new compounds and important variations in chemical defenses both within and among species. Based on the most recent and well-studied phylogeny of Heliconiini, we show that ecological factors such as mimetic interactions and host plant specialization have a significant association with chemical profiles, but these effects are largely explained by phylogenetic relationships. Our results therefore suggest that shared ancestries largely contribute to chemical defense variation, pointing out at the interaction between historical and ecological factors in the evolution of Müllerian mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ombeline Sculfort
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB)Muséum National d'Histoire NaturelleCNRSSorbonne‐UniversitéEPHEUniversité des AntillesParisFrance
- Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro‐organismes (MCAM)Muséum National d'Histoire NaturelleCNRSParisFrance
| | | | | | - Søren Bak
- Department of Plant and Environmental SciencesUniversity of CopenhagenFrederiksbergDenmark
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB)Muséum National d'Histoire NaturelleCNRSSorbonne‐UniversitéEPHEUniversité des AntillesParisFrance
| | - Bastien Nay
- Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptations des Micro‐organismes (MCAM)Muséum National d'Histoire NaturelleCNRSParisFrance
- Laboratoire de Synthèse OrganiqueEcole PolytechniqueCNRSENSTAInstitut Polytechnique de ParisPalaiseau CedexFrance
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB)Muséum National d'Histoire NaturelleCNRSSorbonne‐UniversitéEPHEUniversité des AntillesParisFrance
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8
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Chin K, Feldmann RM, Tashman JN. Consumption of crustaceans by megaherbivorous dinosaurs: dietary flexibility and dinosaur life history strategies. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11163. [PMID: 28935986 PMCID: PMC5608751 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11538-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Large plant-eating dinosaurs are usually presumed to have been strictly herbivorous, because their derived teeth and jaws were capable of processing fibrous plant foods. This inferred feeding behavior offers a generalized view of dinosaur food habits, but rare direct fossil evidence of diet provides more nuanced insights into feeding behavior. Here we describe fossilized feces (coprolites) that demonstrate recurring consumption of crustaceans and rotted wood by large Late Cretaceous dinosaurs. These multi-liter coprolites from the Kaiparowits Formation are primarily composed of comminuted conifer wood tissues that were fungally degraded before ingestion. Thick fragments of laminar crustacean cuticle are scattered within the coprolite contents and suggest that the dinosaurian defecators consumed sizeable crustaceans that sheltered in rotting logs. The diet of decayed wood and crustaceans offered a substantial supply of plant polysaccharides, with added dividends of animal protein and calcium. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the fossilized fecal residues depict year-round feeding habits. It is more reasonable to infer that these coprolites reflected seasonal dietary shifts—possibly related to the dinosaurs’ oviparous breeding activities. This surprising fossil evidence challenges conventional notions of herbivorous dinosaur diets and reveals a degree of dietary flexibility that is consistent with that of extant herbivorous birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Chin
- Department of Geological Sciences and Museum of Natural History, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA.
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9
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Beneš J, Veselý P. The ability of lizards to identify an artificial Batesian mimic. ZOOLOGY 2017; 123:46-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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10
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Bowers MD, Brown IL, Wheye D. BIRD PREDATION AS A SELECTIVE AGENT IN A BUTTERFLY POPULATION. Evolution 2017; 39:93-103. [PMID: 28563638 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1985.tb04082.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/1983] [Accepted: 06/25/1984] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In a population of the checkerspot butterfly, Euphydryas chalcedona, the detached wings of 309 individuals that had been attacked and eaten by birds were collected during a single flight season. During this time period a representative sample of 296 live butterflies in this population was photographed. Comparison of sex ratio and coloration of those butterflies that had been attacked with those that had not showed, first, that birds attacked slightly more females than males; and second, that among males, which are extremely variable in the amount of red on the forewing, birds attacked the less red individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Deane Bowers
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138
| | | | - Darryl Wheye
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305
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11
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Wiklund C, Järvi T. SURVIVAL OF DISTASTEFUL INSECTS AFTER BEING ATTACKED BY NAIVE BIRDS: A REAPPRAISAL OF THE THEORY OF APOSEMATIC COLORATION EVOLVING THROUGH INDIVIDUAL SELECTION. Evolution 2017; 36:998-1002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1982.tb05468.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/1981] [Revised: 12/21/1981] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christer Wiklund
- Department of Zoology; University of Stockholm; S-113 86 Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Zoology; University of Trondheim; Rosenborg N-7000 Trondheim Norway
| | - Torbjörn Järvi
- Department of Zoology; University of Stockholm; S-113 86 Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Zoology; University of Trondheim; Rosenborg N-7000 Trondheim Norway
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12
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Mallet J, Barton NH. STRONG NATURAL SELECTION IN A WARNING-COLOR HYBRID ZONE. Evolution 2017; 43:421-431. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1989.tb04237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/1987] [Accepted: 09/12/1988] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James Mallet
- Galton Laboratory, Department of Genetics and Biometry; University College London; Wolfson House, 4 Stephenson Way London NW1 2HE U.K
| | - Nicholas H. Barton
- Galton Laboratory, Department of Genetics and Biometry; University College London; Wolfson House, 4 Stephenson Way London NW1 2HE U.K
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13
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Sillén-Tullberg B. EVOLUTION OF GREGARIOUSNESS IN APOSEMATIC BUTTERFLY LARVAE: A PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS. Evolution 2017; 42:293-305. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1988.tb04133.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/1987] [Accepted: 09/30/1987] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Guilford T, Dawkins MS. ARE WARNING COLORS HANDICAPS? Evolution 2017; 47:400-416. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb02102.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/1990] [Accepted: 07/24/1992] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tim Guilford
- Animal Behaviour Research Group; Department of Zoology; South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3PS UK
| | - Marian Stamp Dawkins
- Animal Behaviour Research Group; Department of Zoology; South Parks Road Oxford OX1 3PS UK
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15
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Arias M, le Poul Y, Chouteau M, Boisseau R, Rosser N, Théry M, Llaurens V. Crossing fitness valleys: empirical estimation of a fitness landscape associated with polymorphic mimicry. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.0391. [PMID: 27122560 PMCID: PMC4855388 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Characterizing fitness landscapes associated with polymorphic adaptive traits enables investigation of mechanisms allowing transitions between fitness peaks. Here, we explore how natural selection can promote genetic mechanisms preventing heterozygous phenotypes from falling into non-adaptive valleys. Polymorphic mimicry is an ideal system to investigate such fitness landscapes, because the direction of selection acting on complex mimetic colour patterns can be predicted by the local mimetic community composition. Using more than 5000 artificial butterflies displaying colour patterns exhibited by the polymorphic Müllerian mimic Heliconius numata, we directly tested the role of wild predators in shaping fitness landscapes. We compared predation rates on mimetic phenotypes (homozygotes at the supergene controlling colour pattern), intermediate phenotypes (heterozygotes), exotic morphs (absent from the local community) and palatable cryptic phenotypes. Exotic morphs were significantly more attacked than local morphs, highlighting predators' discriminatory capacities. Overall, intermediates were attacked twice as much as local homozygotes, suggesting the existence of deep fitness valleys promoting strict dominance and reduced recombination between supergene alleles. By including information on predators' colour perception, we also showed that protection on intermediates strongly depends on their phenotypic similarity to homozygous phenotypes and that ridges exist between similar phenotypes, which may facilitate divergence in colour patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France UMR CNRS 7179, CNRS-MNHN MECADEV, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 1, avenue du petit château, 91800 Brunoy, France
| | - Yann le Poul
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Chouteau
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Romain Boisseau
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France Département de Biologie, Ecole Normale supérieure, 75 005 Paris, France
| | - Neil Rosser
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Marc Théry
- UMR CNRS 7179, CNRS-MNHN MECADEV, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 1, avenue du petit château, 91800 Brunoy, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
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Silberglied RE, Aiello A, Windsor DM. Disruptive Coloration in Butterflies: Lack of Support in Anartia fatima. Science 2010; 209:617-9. [PMID: 17756845 DOI: 10.1126/science.209.4456.617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Experimental obliteration of high-contrast wing stripes of the neotropical butterfly Anartia fatima affected neither survival nor wing damage in a natural population over a 5-month period. There is no direct evidence supporting the hypothesis that so-called disruptive wing patterns function as protective coloration in butterflies.
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17
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Evans DL, Waldbauer GP. Behavior of Adult and Naive Birds when Presented with a Bumblebee and its Mimic1). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1982.tb00341.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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18
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The evolution of Müllerian mimicry. Naturwissenschaften 2008; 95:681-95. [PMID: 18542902 PMCID: PMC2443389 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-008-0403-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2008] [Revised: 04/26/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
It is now 130 years since Fritz Müller proposed an evolutionary explanation for the close similarity of co-existing unpalatable prey species, a phenomenon now known as Müllerian mimicry. Müller’s hypothesis was that unpalatable species evolve a similar appearance to reduce the mortality involved in training predators to avoid them, and he backed up his arguments with a mathematical model in which predators attack a fixed number (n) of each distinct unpalatable type in a given season before avoiding them. Here, I review what has since been discovered about Müllerian mimicry and consider in particular its relationship to other forms of mimicry. Müller’s specific model of associative learning involving a “fixed n” in a given season has not been supported, and several experiments now suggest that two distinct unpalatable prey types may be just as easy to learn to avoid as one. Nevertheless, Müller’s general insight that novel unpalatable forms have higher mortality than common unpalatable forms as a result of predation has been well supported by field experiments. From its inception, there has been a heated debate over the nature of the relationship between Müllerian co-mimics that differ in their level of defence. There is now a growing awareness that this relationship can be mediated by many factors, including synergistic effects between co-mimics that differ in their mode of defence, rates of generalisation among warning signals and concomitant changes in prey density as mimicry evolves. I highlight areas for future enquiry, including the possibility of Müllerian mimicry systems based on profitability rather than unprofitability and the co-evolution of defence.
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Butterfly effects in mimicry? Combining signal and taste can twist the relationship of Müllerian co-mimics. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-008-0555-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Cardoso MZ, Gilbert LE. A male gift to its partner? Cyanogenic glycosides in the spermatophore of longwing butterflies (Heliconius). Naturwissenschaften 2006; 94:39-42. [PMID: 16957921 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-006-0154-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2006] [Revised: 07/09/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Males of several insect species transfer nuptial gifts to females during mating, typically in the form of a protein-rich spermatophore. In chemically defended species, males could potentially enhance such a gift with chemicals that help protect the female, her eggs, or both. This was shown for lepidopteran species that accumulate pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Most Heliconius butterflies are presumably protected from predators by virtue of de novo synthesized and/or sequestered cyanogenic glycosides. Males of Heliconius species are known to transfer nutritional gifts to the females but whether defensive chemicals could also be transferred is not known. To ascertain whether transfer of cyanogens occurs, we dissected freshly mated females from nine different Heliconius species and analyzed spermatophores for cyanogenic glycosides. We found cyanogens in the spermatophores of all nine species. This is the first time cyanogenic glycosides are reported in the spermatophores of arthropods. We discuss the implications of these findings for Heliconius biology and for other cyanogenic insects as well. We suggest that chemically defended species commonly lace their nuptial gifts with defensive chemicals to improve gift quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcio Zikán Cardoso
- Departamento de Botânica, Ecologia e Zoologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Rio Grande do Norte 59072-970, Brazil.
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Papanicolaou A, Joron M, McMillan WO, Blaxter ML, Jiggins CD. Genomic tools and cDNA derived markers for butterflies. Mol Ecol 2005; 14:2883-97. [PMID: 16029486 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02609.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The Lepidoptera have long been used as examples in the study of evolution, but some questions remain difficult to resolve due to a lack of molecular genetic data. However, as technology improves, genomic tools are becoming increasingly available to tackle unanswered evolutionary questions. Here we have used expressed sequence tags (ESTs) to develop genetic markers for two Müllerian mimic species, Heliconius melpomene and Heliconius erato. In total 1363 ESTs were generated, representing 330 gene objects in H. melpomene and 431 in H. erato. User-friendly bioinformatic tools were used to construct a nonredundant database of these putative genes (available at http://www.heliconius.org), and annotate them with blast similarity searches, InterPro matches and Gene Ontology terms. This database will be continually updated with EST sequences for the Papilionideae as they become publicly available, providing a tool for gene finding in the butterflies. Alignments of the Heliconius sequences with putative homologues derived from Bombyx mori or other public data sets were used to identify conserved PCR priming sites, and develop 55 markers that can be amplified from genomic DNA in both H. erato and H. melpomene. These markers will be used for comparative linkage mapping in Heliconius and will have applications in other phylogenetic and genomic studies in the Lepidoptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexie Papanicolaou
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, Ashworth Laboratories, Kings Buildings, West Mains Road, University of Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, Edinburgh, UK
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Gamberale-Stille G, Guilford T. Automimicry destabilizes aposematism: predator sample-and-reject behaviour may provide a solution. Proc Biol Sci 2005; 271:2621-5. [PMID: 15615689 PMCID: PMC1691898 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2004.2893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aposematism, the use of conspicuous colours to advertise unpalatability to predators, is perhaps the most studied signalling system in nature. However, its evolutionary stability remains paradoxical. The paradox is illustrated by the problem of automimicry. Automimics are palatable individuals within a population of unpalatable aposematics. Automimics benefit from predators avoiding warning coloration without carrying the models' cost of unpalatability, and should increase in the population, destabilizing the signalling system, unless selected against in some way. Cautious sampling, instead of avoidance, by predators may offer a solution to this problem. Here, we investigate the effect of automimic frequency on predator sampling behaviour, and whether predator sampling behaviour may provide a selection pressure against mimics. Domestic chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus) were subjected to the task of discriminating between green (signalling) and untreated brown chick crumbs. Some of the green crumbs were quinine treated and thus unpalatable. The frequency of palatable signalling prey items varied in four treatments; all unpalatable, low automimic frequency, high automimic frequency and all palatable. The results show that predator sampling behaviour is sensitive to automimic frequency and that predators may discriminate between models and mimics through sampling, and thereby benefit unprofitable prey. The results suggest somewhat surprisingly that aposematic signalling is stable only because of the actions of those predators not actually deterred by warning signals.
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Hill RI, Vaca JF. Differential Wing Strength in Pierella Butterflies (Nymphalidae, Satyrinae) Supports the Deflection Hypothesis. Biotropica 2004. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2004.tb00328.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vlieger L, Brakefield PM, Müller C. Effectiveness of the defence mechanism of the turnip sawfly, Athalia rosae (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), against predation by lizards. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2004; 94:283-289. [PMID: 15191629 DOI: 10.1079/ber2004299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The turnip sawfly, Athalia rosae Linnaeus, is a pest on cruciferous crops. Larvae sequester secondary plant compounds, namely glucosinolates, in their haemolymph. When attacked, their integument is easily disrupted and a droplet of haemolymph is exuded ('easy bleeding'). This has been shown to be an effective, chemical-based, defence against invertebrate predators. The efficiency of this proposed defence was tested against a vertebrate predator, using groups of the iguanid lizard Anolis carolinensis Voigt as a model predator. Caterpillars of Pieris rapae Linnaeus and Pieris brassicae Linnaeus served as control prey species that do not sequester glucosinolates. Lizards attacked far fewer sawfly larvae than pierid caterpillars. Several of the sawfly larvae were rejected after an initial attack, demonstrating unpalatability to the lizards, while the Pieris larvae were not rejected. However, P. rapae larvae topically treated with extracts of haemolymph of A. rosae had no deterrent effect on the lizards and no avoidance learning occurred over a period of two weeks. Adult sawflies do not easy bleed but have glucosinolates carried over from the larval stage. Lizards attacked them at a higher rate than larvae and they were never rejected. The results suggest that for the defensive effectiveness of the pest sawfly species against vertebrates the chemical cue is not necessarily sufficient. Movement and colour may be important additional factors triggering the behaviour of vertebrate predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Vlieger
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, PO Box 9516, NL-2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Endler JA, Mappes J. Predator Mixes and the Conspicuousness of Aposematic Signals. Am Nat 2004; 163:532-47. [PMID: 15122501 DOI: 10.1086/382662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2003] [Accepted: 10/21/2003] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Conspicuous warning signals of unprofitable prey are a defense against visually hunting predators. They work because predators learn to associate unprofitability with bright coloration and because strong signals are detectable and memorable. However, many species that can be considered defended are not very conspicuous; they have weak warning signals. This phenomenon has previously been ignored in models and experiments. In addition, there is significant within- and among-species variation among predators in their search behavior, in their visual, cognitive, and learning abilities, and in their resistance to defenses. In this article we explore the effects of variable predators on models that combine positive frequency-dependent, frequency-independent, and negative frequency-dependent predation and show that weak signaling of aposematic species can evolve if predators vary in their tendency to attack defended prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Endler
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA.
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Hill RI, Vaca JF. Differential Wing Strength in Pierella Butterflies (Nymphalidae, Satyrinae) Supports the Deflection Hypothesis1. Biotropica 2004. [DOI: 10.1646/03191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Pinheiro CEG. Does Mullerian Mimicry Work in Nature? Experiments with Butterflies and Birds (Tyrannidae)1. Biotropica 2003. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2003.tb00589.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lyytinen A, Brakefield PM, Mappes J. Significance of butterfly eyespots as an anti-predator device in ground-based and aerial attacks. OIKOS 2003. [DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.11935.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Desfilis E, Font E, Guillén-Salazar F. Stimulus control of predatory behavior by the Iberian wall lizard (Podarcis hispanica, Sauria, Lacertidae): Effects of familiarity with prey. J Comp Psychol 2003; 117:309-16. [PMID: 14498807 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7036.117.3.309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The authors examine the relative roles of vision and chemoreception and the influence of previous experience with prey on the predatory behavior of Iberian wall lizards (Podarcis hispanica). Experiment 1 compared the responses to visual, chemical, and a combination of visual and chemical cues of a familiar prey by 2 groups of lizards that had been kept in captivity for either 3 months or 21 days. Experiment 2 assessed the responses of lizards kept in the laboratory for more than 3 months to a novel prey species. The results reveal that feeding on a prey species affects the lizards' responses to chemical stimuli from that prey. The response to chemical cues of a novel prey requires a 1st-feeding experience with that prey. Lizards that have been fed the same prey species for several months cease responding to the chemical stimuli of that particular prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ester Desfilis
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
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Pinheiro CEG. Does Müllerian Mimicry Work in Nature? Experiments with Butterflies and Birds (Tyrannidae)1. Biotropica 2003. [DOI: 10.1646/02128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
It has long been recognized that defended prey tend to be conspicuous. Current theories suggest that the association ('aposematism') has arisen because predators more readily learn to avoid attacking defended phenotypes when they are conspicuous. In this paper, I consider why such psychology has evolved. In particular, I argue that aposematism may have evolved not because of an independent and pre-existing receiver bias, but because the conspicuousness of a prey item provides a reliable indicator of its likelihood of being defended. To develop my case I consider how warning signals might coevolve in a system containing a number of predators, whose foraging behaviour is also subject to selection. In these cases, models readily show that the greater the conspicuousness of a novel prey item, the more likely that it has been encountered by other predators and survived. As a consequence, naive predators should be less likely to attack highly conspicuous novel prey on encounter, or at least more inclined to attack them cautiously. This adaptive predator behaviour will greatly facilitate the spread of aposematic phenotypes from extreme rarity, which in turn will enhance selection for forms of predator behaviour under which aposematism will coevolve even more readily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas N Sherratt
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK.
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Abstract
A number of aposematic butterfly and diurnal moth species sequester unpalatable or toxic substances from their host plants rather than manufacturing their own defensive substances. Despite a great diversity in their life histories, there are some general features in the selective utilization of plant secondary metabolites to achieve effective protection from predators. This review illustrates the biochemical, physiological, and ecological characteristics of phytochemical-based defense systems that can shed light on the evolution of the widely developed sequestering lifestyles among the Lepidoptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritsuo Nishida
- Laboratory of Chemical Ecology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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Glendinning JI. Responses of three mouse species to deterrent chemicals in the monarch butterfly. II. Taste tests using intact monarchs. CHEMOECOLOGY 1990. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01241653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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The pollination biology of Calypso bulbosa var. Americana (Orchidaceae): Initial deception of bumblebee visitors. Oecologia 1982; 55:178-184. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00384485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/1982] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
Field observations and experimental evidence refute previous objections to the coral snake mimicry hypothesis. Concordant color pattern variation spanning hundreds of miles and several presumed venomous models strongly suggests that several harmless or mildly venomous colubrid snakes are indeed mimics of highly venomous elapids.
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Huheey JE. THE QUESTION OF SYNCHRONY OR "TEMPORAL SYMPATRY" IN MIMICRY. Evolution 1980; 34:614-616. [PMID: 28568696 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1980.tb04851.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/1979] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James E Huheey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742
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Abstract
Adult Eremias lugubris in southern Africa are concealingly colored and move with a typical lizard gait, but the jet-black and white juveniles are conspicuous and forage actively with arched backs. In color, gait, and size, juveniles mimic "oogpister" beetles (Carabidae: Anthia) that spray an acidic, pungent fluid when molested. This unique mimicry, which is believed to be the first reported case of a terrestrial vertebrate mimicking an invertebrate, seems to reduce predation on juvenile lizards.
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